An Interpretation and Inquiry into the Core Chapters of Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites (Li Lun): The Origin of Rites and the Way of Flourishing and Reduction in Culture and Principle

Author: Xuanji Editorial Department

Chapter 1 Introduction: Why Inquire into Rites, Why Discuss Rites

Section 1 The Great Question of Rites

Rites (Li, 礼) stand as the linchpin of pre-Qin scholarship. Since the time of the Three Dynasties onward, any discourse on governance, moral education, the way of Heaven, or the nature of life has been inseparable from the concept of Li. The term Li permeates the discussions of the Hundred Schools of Thought in the pre-Qin era, encompassing the constants of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth, and the conduct of humanity—it is ubiquitous and all-encompassing. But precisely where do Rites originate$1 What makes Li to be Li$2 What is the internal structure of Li$3 And how should we understand its highest realization$4 These great questions have been subjects of prolonged debate for millennia, and the one who offered a systematic answer from the fundamental perspective is Master Xunzi in his Discourse on Rites (Li Lun).

Master Xunzi lived in an era not too distant from antiquity, yet one undergoing rapid transformation. The Rites of the Three Dynasties had collapsed, music had fallen into decay; states waged war, feudal lords usurped authority, high officials seized power, and subsidiary ministers controlled the destiny of the state—the order of the world was utterly fragmented. Master Kong once sighed, "The gu (觚, a ritual wine vessel) is not a gu! Oh, the gu! Oh, the gu!" (Analects, Yong Ye). This lament was not merely about the change in a single vessel; it was a lament over the disorder of names and realities, the loss of both cultural refinement (wen) and inherent substance (zhi) in the world. By the time of Master Xunzi, this disorder had become even more severe. At the end of the Warring States period, the Seven Hegemons contended, the doctrines of utilitarianism prevailed, and the art of diplomacy flourished. People’s hearts increasingly inclined toward profit and strayed from righteousness, almost eroding the very foundation of the ritual order. It was against this historical backdrop that Master Xunzi, with his profound thought and grand vision, composed the Discourse on Rites, a timeless masterpiece, attempting to fundamentally answer the ultimate question: "Where do Rites originate$5"

Why is "Where do Rites originate$6" considered an ultimate question$7 Because to inquire into the origin is to inquire into the essence; to inquire into the essence is to inquire into the reason for existence and the mode of existence. Any academic inquiry that can trace back to the "question of origin" has touched the core of the matter. Master Xunzi opens his discourse by asking, "Where do Rites originate$8" The astonishing power of this question lies in his refusal to be satisfied with merely describing what Rites are or detailing their specific observances; he seeks to explain the intrinsic logic of why Li is Li from the foundation of human nature, the foundation of society, and the foundation of Heaven and Earth.

This great question involves extensive considerations. It pertains to the theory of human nature—where do human desires come from$9 Are they good or evil$10 Should they be nurtured or restrained$11 It concerns social theory—why does humanity require order$12 How is order possible$13 How is it maintained$14 It involves political theory—why did the Former Kings establish Rites$15 What is the purpose of establishing Rites$16 What are the standards for establishing Rites$17 It touches upon philosophical theory—how are culture (wen) and substance (zhi), emotion (qing) and principle (li), origin (ben) and function (yong), flourishing (long) and reduction (sha) balanced and unified$18 It even involves cosmology—what is the relationship between human desires and the material products of Heaven and Earth$19 Does the proposition that "the two support each other and grow" contain some cosmological insight$20

All these matters require deep investigation and careful analysis. The present article is dedicated to providing as deep and comprehensive an interpretation and inquiry as possible into these few, crucial passages at the beginning of Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites.

Section 2 Overview of the Text and Core Teachings

The text studied in this article is selected from the core passages of Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, comprising four sections. We shall first transcribe the text here and then outline the core meaning of each passage sequentially.

Passage 1:

Where do Rites originate$21 They originate from this: humans are born with desires. When desires are present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek. When seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided. Contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution. The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness (Yi, 义) to differentiate among them, thereby nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands. This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires. When the two support each other and grow, this is the origin of Rites.

This passage serves as the general outline of the Discourse on Rites, explaining the origin of Rites. Its core logic can be summarized as a causal chain: Desire $\rightarrow$ Seeking $\rightarrow$ Lack of Measure and Boundary $\rightarrow$ Contention $\rightarrow$ Chaos $\rightarrow$ Destitution $\rightarrow$ Former Kings Establish Rites $\rightarrow$ Nurture Desire and Satisfy Seeking $\rightarrow$ Mutual Support and Growth between Desire and Material Things $\rightarrow$ This is the Origin of Rites. This is a logical deduction from the "natural state" of human nature to the "institutional state" of society, and a process of transformation from "chaos" to "order."

Passage 2:

Honoring the root (ben) is called culture (wen); embracing utility (yong) is called principle (li). When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity (Da Yi, 大一)—this is called Great Flourishing (Da Long, 大隆).

This passage is extremely concise, discussing the internal structure of Rites. "Root" (ben) and "Utility" (yong), "Culture" (wen) and "Principle" (li), constitute the two major dimensions of Rites. "Honoring the root" is to respect the fundamental basis, while "embracing utility" is to be close to practical application. When the two unite, they form culture and return to the "Great Unity"—this is "Great Flourishing" (Da Long)—the highest state of flourishing within Rites.

Passage 3:

All Rites begin with simplicity (tuo or zhuo), are completed in culture (wen), and end in joyful calibration (yue jiao). Thus, in their utmost perfection, both emotion (qing) and culture (wen) are fully realized; in the next degree, emotion and culture alternately prevail; the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity.

This passage discusses the developmental process and stratification of Rites. Simplicity (zhuo, implying unrefined substance) marks the beginning, culture (wen) marks the completion of refinement, and joyful calibration (yue jiao) marks the harmonious end. The relationship between emotion (qing) and culture (wen) determines the quality of the Rites. The highest state is when "emotion and culture are both fully realized" (qing wen ju jin); the next is when "emotion and culture alternately prevail" (qing wen dai sheng); the lowest is when emotion is "reverted to" (fu qing) to return to the Great Unity.

Passage 4:

Rites use material things (cai wu) as their utility (yong), use nobility and baseness (gui jian) as their culture (wen), use abundance and scarcity (duo shao) as their differentiation (yi), and use flourishing (long) and reduction (sha) as their key principle (yao). When culture and principle are elaborate, and emotion and utility are restrained, this is the flourishing (long) of Rites. When culture and principle are sparse, and emotion and utility are abundant, this is the reduction (sha) of Rites. When culture, principle, emotion, and utility mutually serve as interior and exterior, manifestation and obscurity, operating concurrently and intermingled, this is the middle course (zhong liu) of Rites. Therefore, the superior man achieves the utmost flourishing above, exhausts the utmost reduction below, and resides in the middle. His steps, gallops, and swift flights do not go beyond these. This is the altar-space and court of the superior man. If one possesses this, he is a gentleman (shi junzi); if outside this, he is a commoner (min); if he resides perfectly in the middle, moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly, he is a Sage (sheng ren). Thus, that which is deep (hou) is the accumulation of Rites; that which is great (da) is the expanse of Rites; that which is high (gao) is the flourishing (long) of Rites; that which is bright (ming) is the perfection (jin) of Rites. The Book of Odes says: "Rites and ceremonies perfectly measure, laughter and speech perfectly accord." This is what is meant.

This passage is the summary and sublimation of the entire essay. It first explains the four elements of Rites—material things (utility), nobility/baseness (culture), abundance/scarcity (differentiation), and flourishing/reduction (key principle); it then discusses the three tiers of Rites—flourishing (long), reduction (sha), and the middle course (zhong liu); finally, it distinguishes between the superior man and the Sage, and outlines the four virtues of Rites—depth (hou), greatness (da), height (gao), and brightness (ming). It concludes by citing the Book of Odes as evidence, unifying the entire body of reasoning into a complete system.

Section 3 Perspectives and Methods of Inquiry

The present study approaches the text primarily from the following three perspectives:

First, the perspective of pre-Qin Confucianism. Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites represents the culmination of Confucian ritual scholarship in the pre-Qin period. To deeply understand its teachings, one must examine it within the entire tradition of pre-Qin Confucian scholarship. Master Kong’s discussions on Rites, found in various passages of the Analects, often speak from a practical dimension; Master Mengzi’s discussions, found in the seven chapters of the Mencius, often speak from the dimension of mind and nature; whereas Master Xunzi’s discussion systematizes Rites from both institutional and philosophical dimensions. Between the three, there is transmission, development, and profound theoretical tension. This article will extensively cite original texts from the Analects, the Mencius, and other chapters of the Xunzi to present this lineage of transmission and development.

Furthermore, various chapters of the Book of Rites (Li Ji), such as Li Yun (The Evolution of Rites), Yue Ji (The Discourse on Music), Zhong Yong (The Doctrine of the Mean), Da Xue (The Great Learning), Fang Ji, Biao Ji, and Zi Yi, although compiled later, contain core content largely derived from pre-Qin Confucians, frequently echoing Master Xunzi’s views. This article will frequently quote from the Li Ji for reference.

In addition, the Zuo Zhuan and the Guo Yu (Discourses of the States) record numerous examples of ritual practice and ritualistic discussions from the Spring and Autumn period, such as Master Zichan’s discourse on Rites, Uncle Xiang’s discourse, and Yan Ying’s discourse, all invaluable materials for understanding pre-Qin ritual thought. The I Ching (Zhou Yi), particularly its Xu Gua (Sequence Hexagrams), Tuan Zhuan (Commentary on the Images), and Xiang Zhuan (Commentary on the Images), also contains rich concepts of order and ritualistic philosophy. The Book of Songs (Shi Jing) and the Book of Documents (Shang Shu), as the most ancient documents, reflect primordial concepts of rites and are fundamental references for understanding the origins of Li. All will be cited where relevant.

Second, the perspective of pre-Qin Daoism. Daoism’s stance toward Rites is outwardly critical and negatory. Master Laozi states: "When the Dao is lost, virtue (De) follows. When virtue is lost, benevolence (Ren) follows. When benevolence is lost, righteousness (Yi) follows. When righteousness is lost, Rites (Li) follow. Rites are the thin veneer of loyalty and trust, and the beginning of chaos." (Laozi, Chapter 38). Master Zhuangzi is even more biting, satirizing and deconstructing worldly Rites. However, Daoist critique precisely reveals a deep problem within Rites—the formalism of Rites, the alienation of Rites, and the tension between Rites and Nature. Viewing Xunzi’s theory of Rites from a Daoist perspective allows for a deeper understanding of the relationship between "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen), "root" (ben) and "utility" (yong), and the ultimate state of the "Great Unity" (Da Yi).

On a deeper level, the "Nature" (Ziran) sought by Daoism and the "Order" sought by Confucianism are not strictly antithetical. Laozi’s "The Dao follows what is natural" (Dao fa Ziran) and Zhuangzi’s "Heaven and Earth possess great beauty but do not speak; the four seasons have clear laws but do not debate; the myriad things possess perfected principles but do not preach" (Zhuangzi, Zhi Bei You) actually imply a higher level of ordering principle—the order of Nature itself. Does Master Xunzi’s "the two support each other and grow," and "return to the Great Unity," also imply some correspondence with this natural order$22 This question deserves deep investigation.

Third, the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore. The origin of Rites is not only a philosophical question but also a historical and anthropological one. Pre-Qin texts preserve numerous records concerning ancient sacrifices, shamanism, and rituals. Li Ji: Li Yun states: "The beginning of Rites originated in food and drink. When roasting millet and chopping up pigs, using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands, beating drums with grass bundles—even this seemed sufficient to convey their reverence to the spirits of Heaven and Earth." This view traces the origin of Rites back to the most primitive food sacrifices. The deities, totem worship, and rituals recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shan Hai Jing), the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth by Emperors Yao and Shun recorded in the Book of Documents, and the sacrificial hymns in the Book of Songs are all important clues for understanding the primordial form of Rites.

From the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore, the origin of Rites might be far more ancient and mysterious than Master Xunzi describes. The initial form of Rites may not have been rational institutional design, but reverence and piety felt by humans facing the spirits of Heaven and Earth. This reverence and piety constitute the most primordial expression of the "emotion" (qing) of Rites. Does Master Xunzi’s "begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo)—this simplicity (zhuo) at the beginning—hint at the ancient, primordial form of Rites$23 This also warrants deep inquiry.

In terms of research methodology, this article will be based on close textual reading, centered on the elucidation of principles, and utilizing inter-textual verification as the means. "Close textual reading" involves analyzing Master Xunzi’s original text sentence by sentence, missing no layer of deep meaning in any word. "Elucidation of principles" means, building upon close reading, revealing the inherent philosophical logic and ideological system. "Inter-textual verification" involves quoting original texts from other pre-Qin classics to correspond with and verify Master Xunzi’s claims, thereby presenting the overall landscape of pre-Qin ritual scholarship.

This article strives to be rigorous in its textual scholarship, profound in its elucidation of principles, yet accessible in its presentation. All cited classics are original pre-Qin texts, without reference to materials from the Han dynasty or later. Respectful terms will be used consistently for ancient figures to show deference.

Section 4 Development of the Problematic Consciousness

Before delving into the main text, it is necessary to organize and expand upon the core problematic consciousness of this article. Reading these four passages from Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, we can pose at least the following manifold questions:

Regarding the Origin of Rites:

Why does Master Xunzi make "humans are born with desires" the logical starting point for Rites$24 What exactly is the concept of "desire" (yu) within Master Xunzi’s system$25 Is it purely negative, neutral, or even possess some legitimacy$26 "When desires are present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek"—what is the relationship between "desire" (yu) and "seeking" (qiu)$27 What does "unsatisfied" (bu de) imply$28 Material scarcity, or the inherent nature of desire itself$29 "When seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided"—what do the four characters "measure, quantity, division, boundary" (du liang fen jie) mean$30 Do these four terms each refer to something distinct$31 "The Former Kings detested this chaos"—who are the "Former Kings"$32 Are they specific historical figures, or an idealized concept$33 Does the "detestation" (e) of chaos imply mere dislike or serious concern$34 "Established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them"—how should "establish" (zhi) be understood$35 Is it creation or discovery$36 Were Rites created out of thin air by the Former Kings, or did they discover a natural law and institutionalize it$37 "Thereby nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands"—why "nurture" desire rather than "extinguish" it$38 How does this fundamentally differ from the Buddhist path of extinguishing desire or the Daoist path of reducing desire$39 "This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires"—what do "exhaust" (qiong) and "subjugated" (qu) mean$40 "When the two support each other and grow"—does "support each other" (xiang chi) imply confrontation or mutual sustenance$41 Does "and grow" (er zhang) mean they increase together$42

Regarding Culture (Wen) and Principle (Li):

"Honoring the root is called culture (wen)"—What is the "root" (ben)$43 Why is "honoring the root" called "culture" (wen)$44 Conventionally, the "root" should relate to "substance" (zhi), and "culture" to "embellishment." Why is honoring the root instead called "culture" (wen)$45 Does the term "culture" (wen) here have a special meaning$46 "Embracing utility is called principle (li)"—What is "utility" (yong)$47 Why is "embracing utility" called "principle" (li)$48 Does "principle" here mean order or texture, or does it mean reason or law$49 "When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity (Da Yi)"—What state is the "Great Unity"$50 Is it related to the "Dao" spoken of by Daoists$51 "This is called Great Flourishing (Da Long)"—Is "Great Flourishing" the highest state of Rites$52 What is its relationship to the "flourishing" (long) mentioned later$53

Regarding the Process and Levels of Rites:

"Begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo)—What is the meaning of zhuo (梲)$54 Commentators have long debated this. Does it mean "to shed" (simplicity, unadorned), or does it refer to something else$55 "Completed in culture" (cheng hu wen)—Since the completion of Rites lies in "culture" (wen), is this wen the same as the wen in the previous passage$56 "Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao)—What is "joyful calibration"$57 Does "joy" (yue) mean delight, and "calibration" (jiao) mean verification or comparison$58 Or does it have another meaning$59 "Emotion and culture are both fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—Does "fully realized" (jin) mean exhausted or perfected$60 "Emotion and culture alternately prevail" (qing wen dai sheng)—Does "alternately prevail" mean one wins out over the other, or that they substitute each other$61 "Reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity" (fu qing yi gui Da Yi)—Why does the "lowest degree" also "return to the Great Unity"$62 Is the Great Unity not the highest state$63 Why can the lowest degree also return to the Great Unity$64 Does this imply a dialectic of "the extreme of misfortune leads to fortune"$65

Regarding Flourishing, Reduction, and the Sages’ Attainment:

"Rites use material things as their utility, use nobility and baseness as their culture, use abundance and scarcity as their differentiation, and use flourishing and reduction as their key principle"—What is the relationship among these four elements$66 Are they parallel or successive$67 "When culture and principle are elaborate, and emotion and utility are restrained, this is the flourishing (long) of Rites." Why is it the flourishing (long) of Rites when culture and principle are elaborate but emotion and utility are restrained$68 Does this imply that the more flourishing the Rites, the more concise their emotional content$69 Does this contradict the ideal of "emotion and culture are both fully realized"$70 "The superior man achieves the utmost flourishing above, exhausts the utmost reduction below, and resides in the middle"—Why must the superior man navigate between flourishing, reduction, and the middle$71 "His steps, gallops, and swift flights do not go beyond these"—What do the phrases symbolizing walking, galloping, and flying swiftly symbolize$72 "This is the altar-space and court of the superior man"—Is "altar-space and court" a literal reference or a metaphor$73 "If he resides perfectly in the middle, moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly, he is a Sage"—What do "moving deftly" (fang huang) and "grasping the order implicitly" (qu de qi ci xu) mean$74 What is the distinction between the Sage and the superior man$75 "That which is deep is the accumulation of Rites; that which is great is the expanse of Rites; that which is high is the flourishing of Rites; that which is bright is the perfection of Rites"—Do the four terms depth, greatness, height, and brightness constitute the four dimensions of Rites$76 What is their relationship to the flourishing/reduction system discussed earlier$77

All such questions are what this article seeks to explore deeply. The following sections will proceed according to the order of the text, interpreting passage by passage and sentence by sentence, while continuously introducing original texts from other pre-Qin classics for correspondence and verification.

Chapter 2 Where Do Rites Originate$78 Human Desire, Contention, and the Establishments of the Former Kings

Section 1 "Humans are born with desires": Desire as the Logical Starting Point for Rites

Master Xunzi’s discourse on the origin of Rites begins with the opening sentence: "Where do Rites originate$79 They originate from this: humans are born with desires."

This single sentence, seemingly plain, is in fact earth-shattering. It places the logical starting point of Rites upon "human desire." This implies that, in Master Xunzi’s view, Rites are not divine mandates descended from Heaven, nor abstract principles conceived from thin air by the Sages. Rather, they originate from the most basic, primordial impulse of human life—desire (yu).

What is meant by "humans are born with desires"$80 The phrase "born with" (sheng er you) is extremely crucial. "Born" (sheng) means coeval with birth. "With" (you) means naturally endowed. Combined, "humans are born with desires" means: Desire is human nature, the most fundamental fact of being human. As soon as a person is born, they possess the desire for food, warmth, and security; as they mature, desires for sensory pleasure, fame, and communal living emerge. These desires are not learned later or instilled by someone; they appear simultaneously with life itself.

This position is entirely consistent with Master Xunzi’s arguments in the chapter Xing’e (Human Nature is Evil). Xing’e states:

"The nature of man is evil; his goodness is artificial (wei). The nature of man is such that, being born, he is inclined to profit. If he follows this inclination, contention and rapacity will arise, and courtesy and deference will disappear. Being born, he has feelings of envy and hate. If he follows this, cruelty and violence will arise, and loyalty and trust will disappear. Being born, he has the desires of the ear and eye, loving beautiful sounds and sights. If he follows this, licentiousness and disorder will arise, and rites, righteousness, culture, and principle will disappear."

This passage clearly indicates that humans are born with a tendency toward profit, envy, and hatred, and with desires of the ear and eye for sensory pleasure. These are the characteristics of human nature in its "natural state." The term "evil nature" (xing e) does not mean humans are inherently wicked, but rather that if one allows human natural inclinations to proceed unchecked, the inevitable result is contention, cruelty, and disorder—that is, "evil" consequences.

However, in the Discourse on Rites, Master Xunzi’s tone presents a subtle difference. He does not say "human nature is evil," but rather "humans are born with desires." The word "desire" (yu) itself does not carry a clear good or evil judgment. It is merely a statement of fact: humans have desires. This factual description is neutral. Desire itself is neither good nor evil; it is simply a fundamental dimension of human life.

This point is highly significant. If desire itself were evil, the task of Rites would be "to extinguish desire"—to completely eliminate it. But Master Xunzi clearly does not believe this. He later states clearly, "nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands" (yang ren zhi yu, gei ren zhi qiu)—the task of Rites is not to extinguish desire, but to nurture it and satisfy its demands. This implies that desire possesses legitimacy within Xunzi’s theory of Rites. Desire must be satisfied, but only within certain "measures and boundaries."

This stance has deep roots within the broader tradition of pre-Qin Confucianism. Although Master Kong rarely discussed desire directly, he fully affirmed the legitimacy of basic human needs. In the Analects, Li Ren chapter, it is stated:

"Wealth and status are what men desire. If they cannot be obtained in the proper way (Dao), one should not hold to them. Poverty and lowliness are what men dislike. If they cannot be avoided in the proper way, one should not avoid them."

Master Kong explicitly acknowledges here that the desire for wealth and status is what people want, and the dislike for poverty and lowliness is what people feel. He does not claim that the desire for wealth is inherently wrong; he merely insists that acquiring wealth must be "according to the Way" (yi qi Dao)—that is, through legitimate means. This is entirely consistent with Master Xunzi’s idea of "nurturing human desires"—the goal is not to deny desire itself, but to establish legitimate channels and limits for its satisfaction.

Furthermore, the Analects, Yan Yuan chapter, records a profound dialogue:

Zigong asked about governance. The Master said, "Sufficient food, sufficient military defense, and the people’s trust in them." Zigong asked, "If you must omit one of these three, which should be omitted first$81" The Master said, "Omit the military." Zigong asked, "If you must omit one of the remaining two, which should be omitted first$82" The Master said, "Omit the food. Since antiquity, all have faced death, but the people cannot stand without trust."

In this dialogue, Master Kong lists "sufficient food" as one of the three major necessities of governance, indicating his full recognition of the legitimacy of basic human needs (the most fundamental form of desire). Only when "absolutely unavoidable" should food be omitted, while preserving "trust"—the foundation of social order.

Let us also look at Mencius. Although Mencius advocates for the "goodness of human nature" (xing shan), he also acknowledges that humans have basic desires and that these desires have legitimacy. In Mencius, Liang Hui Wang I, it is said:

"If the King loves sensuality, and the people share that love with him, what harm is there to the King$83"

And further:

"If the King loves wealth, and the people share that love with him, what harm is there to the King$84"

Mencius explicitly states that loving sensuality or loving wealth (material possessions) is acceptable, provided one "shares it with the people" (yu bai xing tong zhi)—sharing the fruits with the populace. This idea of linking the legitimacy of desire to social fairness shares a deep resonance with Master Xunzi’s idea of "nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands."

However, we must note the fundamental divergence between Master Xunzi and Master Mengzi regarding the theory of human nature. Mencius advocates for the innate goodness of nature, believing the sprouts of goodness (benevolence, righteousness, rites, wisdom) are innate; Master Xunzi advocates for the evil nature of man, believing natural disposition tends toward evil, and goodness is the result of later artificial effort (wei). This divergence directly influences their understanding of the origin of Rites.

For Mencius, the origin of Rites lies in the heart’s innate "sense of concession and refusal" (ci rang zhi xin):

"The sense of concession and refusal is the beginning of Rites." (Gongsun Chou I)

"The feeling of compassion is common to all men; the feeling of shame and aversion is common to all men; the feeling of respect and reverence is common to all men; the feeling of right and wrong is common to all men. Compassion is benevolence; shame and aversion are righteousness; respect and reverence are Rites; right and wrong are wisdom. These four are not conferred upon us from without; we are born with them; we simply do not reflect upon them." (Gongsun Chou I)

For Mencius, Rites are internal to the human heart, the natural unfolding of the "feeling of respect and reverence." Thus, the origin of Rites is not external institutional design but the internal flourishing of innate character.

For Xunzi, however, the origin of Rites is precisely in external institutional design—"The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them." Rites do not exist naturally within human nature; Rites were created by the Former Kings to deal with the chaos resulting from human desires.

These two views seem irreconcilable, yet upon deeper analysis, they may be viewed as addressing the same issue from different dimensions. The "Rites" Mencius speaks of primarily refer to the spirit of Rites—the heart of reverence and concession; the "Rites" Xunzi speaks of primarily refer to the institutions of Rites—the norms of measure and boundary. The spirit is internal, the institution external. The internal spirit requires the external institution for realization and protection, while the external institution requires the internal spirit for substance and support. From this perspective, the claims of Mencius and Xunzi are not contradictory but complementary.

However, the focus here is not on reconciling their differences but on deeply understanding Xunzi’s own logic. In Xunzi’s system, "humans are born with desires" is an immutable fact. It is the starting point for his entire theory of Rites. Without desire, Rites are unnecessary; with desire, Rites become possible. Therefore, in Xunzi’s theory of Rites, desire is not an enemy to be eliminated but a force that needs to be guided and accommodated.

We might further ask: Where does the assertion "humans are born with desires" fit within the broader landscape of pre-Qin thought$85

From the Daoist perspective, Master Laozi also acknowledges human desire, but his attitude is one of "reducing desire" (guadu yu). Laozi Chapter 19 states:

"See the unadorned, embrace simplicity, have fewer desires."

And Chapter 46 states:

"There is no greater crime than to desire to have more than one deserves; there is no greater misfortune than not knowing when one has had enough; there is no greater fault than covetousness. Therefore, he who knows that enough is enough will always have enough."

Laozi considered desire the source of calamity. Human misfortune stems from having too many desires and not knowing when one is satisfied. Thus, he advocated for "fewer private interests and reduced desires," even suggesting "non-desire" (wu yu). Laozi Chapter 37 states: "If one abandons desire and maintains stillness, the world will settle itself."

Master Zhuangzi went further, advocating not only for reducing desire but transcending it, reaching the state where "the Utmost Man has no self, the Spiritual Man has no achievement, and the Sage has no name" (Zhuangzi, Xiao Yao You). In Zhuangzi’s view, desire is the manifestation of the "formed mind" (cheng xin), an obstacle obscuring the Dao.

"Great knowledge is broad and expansive; small knowledge is restricted and narrow. Great words are imposing; small words are babbling. When they sleep, their spirits commune; when they wake, their forms open up. They connect and construct with interaction, fighting with their minds daily." (Zhuangzi, Qi Wu Lun)

This "fighting with their minds daily" (ri yi xin dou) is the constant state of the human mind driven by desire. Zhuangzi believed that only by transcending this state, reaching the "loss of self" (wu wo), can one truly comprehend the Great Dao.

Comparing the Daoist position of "reducing desire" or "non-desire" with Xunzi’s position of "nurturing desire," we see a fundamental divergence: Xunzi believed desire cannot and should not be eliminated, but guided and satisfied; Daoism believes desire can and should be transcended, and the state beyond it is true authenticity.

This divergence stems from their differing understanding of "human nature": Xunzi believed desire is human nature, an unchangeable "given," upon which social order must be constructed through post-natal effort (wei); Daoism believed desire is not one's "true nature" (ben zhen), which is "uncarved wood" (pu)—pristine and untouched by desire. Thus, the path of self-cultivation is not guiding desire but returning to the original state.

Yet, even so, there are deep connections between Xunzi and Daoism. Master Xunzi’s "the two support each other and grow" and "return to the Great Unity," with their implied view of dynamic equilibrium and holistic unity, certainly resonate with certain core Daoist concepts. This will be discussed further later.

Furthermore, from the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore, the judgment "humans are born with desires" can be verified in the most primitive human experiences. One of the core motivations for humanity's earliest religious rituals and sacrificial activities was "seeking"—praying for favorable weather, praying for a bountiful hunt, praying for offspring, and praying to be spared from disaster. These acts of "seeking" are based on humanity’s most fundamental desires. Li Ji: Li Yun states:

"The beginning of Rites originated in food and drink. When roasting millet and chopping up pigs, using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands, beating drums with grass bundles—even this seemed sufficient to convey their reverence to the spirits of Heaven and Earth."

"Begins in food and drink" (shi yu yin shi)—the earliest form of Rites started with food and drink. Humans have the desire for food and drink, hence the seeking for food and drink; the seeking leads to rituals appealing to Heaven and Earth for sustenance; this ritual of appeal is the most primitive form of Li. "Roasting millet and chopping up pigs" (fan shu bo tun)—offering roasted millet and young pigs to the spirits. "Using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands" (wu zun er pou yin)—digging pits to hold wine and drinking it by scooping with the hand. "Beating drums with grass bundles" (kui fu er tu gu)—using grass bundles as drumsticks and earthen mounds as drums. These extremely rudimentary sacrificial methods are direct manifestations of "humans are born with desires" in antiquity.

Therefore, Master Xunzi’s taking "humans are born with desires" as the logical starting point for Rites is not only theoretically self-consistent but also verifiable in historical experience. Human desire is the most primitive driving force behind the occurrence of Rites.

Section 2 "When desires are present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek": Distinguishing Desire (Yu) and Seeking (Qiu)

Following "humans are born with desires," Master Xunzi immediately states: "When desires are present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek."

The subtlety of this sentence lies in distinguishing between the concepts of "desire" (yu) and "seeking" (qiu). "Desire" is an internal psychological state—wanting something in the heart. "Seeking" is an external behavioral state—taking action to pursue something. "Desire" does not necessarily lead to "seeking"—if what one desires is readily available, there is no need for deliberate pursuit. Only when "desire is present but unsatisfied" (yu er bu de)—wanting something but being unable to obtain it naturally—does the act of "seeking" arise.

The term "unsatisfied" (bu de) is crucial. Why would one be "unsatisfied"$86 There are at least two possible interpretations:

First Interpretation: Material Scarcity. Human desires are infinite, while material resources are finite. A person wants food, but food is not supplied limitlessly; a person wants clothing, but clothing must be made and acquired. Therefore, "unsatisfied" occurs because resources are limited, and desires cannot be met automatically. This is an economic interpretation, and the most direct one.

A passage in Master Xunzi’s Fu Guo (Enriching the State) can support this interpretation:

"All things share the same space but have different forms; they have no specific title yet have specific uses—this is the nature of things. In human society, people live side-by-side, seeking the same things but following different paths, desiring the same things but having different knowledge. Birth is the beginning for humans, with no escape between Heaven and Earth."

Although all things share space under Heaven and Earth, they possess different forms and uses. People gather together, pursuing the same goals ("seeking the same things"), but use different methods ("different paths"); they desire the same objects ("desiring the same things"), but possess different cognitive abilities ("different knowledge"). This implies that finite resources must be competed for by many people, making "unsatisfied" an inevitable result.

Second Interpretation: The Nature of Desire Itself. Desire is called desire precisely because it points toward something not yet possessed. If something is attained, desire vanishes—or transforms into a new desire. Therefore, "desire is present but unsatisfied" is not only a result of external resource limitations but an intrinsic characteristic of desire itself. Desire inherently points toward the future, toward what is not yet owned. As Master Xunzi states in Zheng Ming (Rectification of Names):

"Desire seeks before attainment; this is what is received from Heaven."

Desire seeks before it is satisfied; this is the nature received from Heaven. Desire inherently carries the characteristic of "unsatisfied"—it always remains in a state of "unfulfillment."

Both interpretations can coexist and should coexist. The first focuses on objective conditions—the finiteness of material resources; the second focuses on subjective conditions—the infinitude of desire itself. The common result of both is "cannot help but seek" (bu neng wu qiu)—people cannot avoid pursuing.

The phrasing of "cannot help but seek" is also noteworthy. Master Xunzi does not say "must seek," but "cannot help but seek"—expressing affirmation through double negation. This phrasing emphasizes the inevitability of the act of "seeking": it is not that people choose to seek, but that they cannot avoid seeking. This carries an almost fatalistic tone—the human act of pursuit is determined by the nature of desire, leaving little room for choice.

From other pre-Qin texts, we can find thought corresponding to this. Guanzi, Mu Min states:

"For those who govern land and people, their focus is on the Four Seasons, their security lies in the storehouses. If the land yields abundance, distant people will come; if the land is cultivated, people will stay; if the storehouses are full, they will know propriety and etiquette; if food and clothing are sufficient, they will know honor and shame."

Although Master Guanzi speaks mainly from a political governance perspective, the underlying logic aligns with Master Xunzi: basic human desires must first be satisfied ("storehouses are full," "food and clothing are sufficient"), only then can propriety and etiquette be discussed. This means the act of "seeking" is the basic mode of human behavior; if "seeking" is not satisfied, higher-order order (Rites and Honor) cannot be established.

In the Zuo Zhuan, Zhao Gong Twenty-Fifth Year, we find Master Zichan’s words on Rites:

"Rites are the constant laws of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth, and the conduct of the people. The constants of Heaven and Earth, and the people follow them. Following the clarity of Heaven, adapting to the nature of Earth, they give rise to the Six Qi (vital forces) and employ the Five Elements. The Qi form the Five Flavors, manifest as the Five Colors, resonate as the Five Tones. If indulged excessively, confusion and disorder arise, and the people lose their nature. Therefore, Rites are established to support them."

Master Zichan links Rites to the constant laws of Heaven and Earth, believing Rites are the manifestation of Heaven’s and Earth’s natural order in the human world. "The conduct of the people" (min zhi xing ye)—Rites are the basis of popular conduct. Why are Rites needed$87 Because "if indulged excessively, confusion and disorder arise, and the people lose their nature." Here, "indulgence" (yin) is precisely the state of "lacking measure and boundary after seeking" that Xunzi mentions later. "Rites are established to support them" (wei li yi feng zhi)—hence Rites are established to uphold them.

It is noteworthy that Master Zichan traces the origin of Rites to the natural order of Heaven and Earth, not solely to human desire. This perspective differs from Xunzi's grounding the origin purely in human nature. However, the two are not contradictory: Human desires are endowed by Heaven and Earth ("received from Heaven"), and Rites are established to respond to these innate desires, bringing them into order. Therefore, the origin of Rites lies both in human nature and in Heaven and Earth.

The I Ching, Xu Gua Zhuan states:

"After Heaven and Earth came the myriad things; after the myriad things came male and female; after male and female came husband and wife; after husband and wife came father and son; after father and son came ruler and minister; after ruler and minister came superiors and inferiors; after superiors and inferiors came Rites and Righteousness to have their proper place."

The establishment of Rites and Righteousness is placed in a grand sequence from Heaven and Earth to the myriad things to human relations. Rites and Righteousness did not appear out of thin air but are the inevitable result of the natural evolution of Heaven, Earth, and all things. Once there is a distinction between superior and inferior, Rites and Righteousness are necessarily required to settle it. This aligns with Xunzi’s logic: If there are desires, there must be seeking; if there is seeking, there must be conflict; if there is conflict, there must be order—and this order is Rites.

Section 3 The Profound Meaning of "Measure, Quantity, Division, Boundary" (Du Liang Fen Jie)

"When seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided."

This sentence follows the preceding one, further expanding the logical chain. Humans have desires, leading to seeking; if seeking lacks "measure and boundary," contention inevitably arises.

The four terms "measure, quantity, division, boundary" (du liang fen jie) are one of the core concepts in Master Xunzi’s theory of Rites. These four terms can be understood separately or as a unified concept.

"Measure" (Du)—Scale, standard. Everything must have a standard by which it is measured. How much is enough$88 What degree is appropriate$89 This is "measure." The wise define names to correspond to reality (Zheng Ming); similarly, there must be a "measure" to gauge the relationship between desire and fulfillment.

"Quantity" (Liang)—Capacity, allocation limit. How much each person can obtain, and how much each resource can be allocated—this is "quantity." "Quantity" is the concrete manifestation of "measure"—"measure" is the abstract standard, "quantity" is the concrete amount.

"Division" (Fen)—Differentiation, distribution. Different people should receive different shares, and different situations should have different norms. This is "division." Master Xunzi especially emphasizes the importance of "division" in the Wang Zhi (Royal Institutions) chapter:

"When divisions are equal, there is no partiality; when status is equal, there is no obedience; when the masses are equal, there is no command. There is Heaven and Earth, yet superiors and inferiors have differences. The enlightened King first established laws and institutions to create distinctions. Two noble ones cannot serve each other, and two lowly ones cannot command each other—this is the decree of Heaven. When status and position are equal and desires/aversions are the same, if things cannot be moderated, contention will inevitably arise, leading to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution. The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them, establishing degrees of rich and poor, noble and base, sufficient for mutual oversight—this is the foundation for nurturing the world. The Book of Documents says: 'To be equal is not to be equal.' This is what is meant."

This passage almost perfectly parallels the opening of the Discourse on Rites, but adds a crucial element—the concrete meaning of "division" (fen) is "to establish degrees of rich and poor, noble and base." Thus, "division" is not simple egalitarian sharing, but a division with gradations (cha deng zhi fen). Different people, according to the height of their virtue and capability, receive different social statuses and material treatments. This differentiation in division is a core function of Rites.

"Boundary" (Jie)—Limit, demarcation. Every distribution must have its boundary, which cannot be crossed. "Boundary" is the guarantee of "division"—without clear limits, "division" becomes meaningless.

Taken together, "measure, quantity, division, boundary" means: the standard for measurement, the quota for allocation, the differentiation of grades, and the inviolable limits. These four elements constitute a complete framework for social order. With this framework, human pursuits can proceed orderly, without descending into chaos.

Why does "lacking measure and boundary" inevitably lead to "contention"$90 The reason is simple: If there is no standard to measure who should get how much, no limit to restrain individual acquisition, no differentiation to distinguish different shares for different people, and no boundary to prevent encroachment, then everyone will strive to seize as many resources as possible. Since resources are finite, contention becomes unavoidable.

Master Xunzi further explains this in the Rong Ru (Honor and Disgrace) chapter:

"Man’s nature is such that he desires choice meats and embroidered clothes for eating and wearing, carriages and horses for traveling, and moreover desires abundance of accumulated wealth. Yet, throughout years and generations, he is never satisfied—this is human nature."

Human nature (ren zhi qing) is never satisfied. One desires choice meats (chu huan) for eating, and fine silks (wen xiu) for wearing; one desires carriages and horses for travel, and wishes to accumulate wealth. "Never satisfied throughout years and generations" (qiong nian lei shi bu zhi bu zu)—it is never enough in a lifetime. This is the "infinite nature of desire." When infinite desire encounters finite resources, and there is no "measure, quantity, division, boundary" to regulate it, contention is the only outcome.

More profoundly, the root of "cannot avoid contention" lies not only in the scarcity of resources but also in the comparative psychology of people. Humans do not just want their own desires satisfied; they want to obtain more than others. Master Xunzi in Fu Guo states:

"Desires and aversions point to the same things. Desires are many, but things are few; when few, contention must arise."

"Desires and aversions point to the same things" (yu e wu tong wu)—the objects toward which human likes and dislikes point are the same. Everyone desires good food, good clothing, and good housing. When all point toward the same scarce resource, conflict is unavoidable.

This profound insight into the competitive nature of humanity is also reflected in the Zuo Zhuan. In the Zuo Zhuan, Xiang Gong Twenty-Sixth Year, it is recorded:

"One who governs a state well ensures that rewards are not over-extended and punishments are not applied too broadly. If rewards are over-extended, one fears they will reach the dissolute; if punishments are too broad, one fears they will reach the virtuous. If one unfortunately errs, it is better to over-reward than to punish too broadly."

Why is "no over-extension of rewards" (shang bu jian) so important$91 Because if rewards lack standards, measures, and boundaries, they lead to "the dissolute" (yin ren, improper people) receiving undue rewards, which in turn provokes dissatisfaction and contention from others. This is the practical footnote to "when seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided."

From the Daoist perspective, Laozi offers a more fundamental reflection:

"Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not strive. Do not value the hard-to-get goods, and the people will not steal. Do not display what arouses desire, and the people’s minds will not be confused." (Laozi, Chapter 3)

Laozi’s strategy is to eliminate the motive for contention at its source: If worthiness is not praised, people will not compete for fame; if hard-to-get goods are not treasured, people will not steal; if desirable objects are not displayed, people’s minds will not be disturbed. This is a "taking the firewood out from under the cauldron" strategy: instead of using "measure and boundary" to regulate contention, it eliminates the very conditions that trigger contention.

The divergence between Xunzi and Laozi is most vivid here. Xunzi believed desire is ineliminable, and contention is its inevitable result, thus requiring external institutions (Rites) to regulate it; Laozi believed contention can be fundamentally avoided—simply by not stimulating human desire.

However, we might ask: Is Laozi’s strategy truly feasible$92 Is "not displaying what arouses desire" possible$93 Since human desire is "born with" and "received from Heaven," can it really be eliminated simply by "not seeing" it$94 If a hungry person does not see food, does he cease to be hungry$95 If a cold person does not see clothing, does he cease to be cold$96 From this angle, Xunzi’s position seems more realistic and pragmatic. He does not fantasize about eliminating desire but faces its existence and attempts to establish a rational order for it.

Yet, Laozi’s critique also holds profound insight. The contention caused by "exalting the worthy" and the theft resulting from "valuing rare goods" have indeed occurred frequently in historical practice. Excessive competition and comparison certainly exacerbate social chaos. Therefore, Daoist reflection serves as a useful supplement to Confucian ritual theory—while establishing "measure and boundary," one must also guard against excessive stimulation and temptation.

Section 4 "Contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution": The Vicious Cycle from Contention to Destitution

"Contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution." (Zheng ze luan, luan ze qiong.)

These six characters describe a vicious cycle—or more accurately, a process of accelerated decline—from "contention" to "chaos" to "destitution."

"Contention" (Zheng)—When people pursue their own interests without "measure and boundary," conflict is unavoidable. You want this land, and I want this land too; you want to be the leader, and I want to be the leader—contention arises.

"Chaos" (Luan)—The direct consequence of contention is the disintegration of social order. When everyone is fighting for themselves, any existing order is destroyed. The strong oppress the weak, the many attack the few, the cunning deceive the simple—society descends into a chaotic state of survival of the fittest.

"Destitution" (Qiong)—The final result of chaos is that everyone falls into difficulty. Why$97 Because chaos means the collapse of social cooperation. Humans are able to survive and develop because they can create value far beyond individual capacity through social division of labor and cooperation. Once society falls into chaos, cooperation is impossible, and everyone must rely on their own strength for survival, yet individual strength is extremely limited. Therefore, the ultimate outcome of chaos is not that some win and some lose, but that everyone loses—"destitution."

Master Xunzi offers an extremely insightful exposition of this in the Wang Zhi chapter:

"Water and fire have qi but no life; grass and trees have life but no knowledge; birds and beasts have knowledge but no righteousness. Man has qi, has life, has knowledge, and also has righteousness, therefore he is most esteemed under Heaven. Oxen are stronger than men in power, and horses are faster than men in running, yet oxen and horses serve man. Why$98 Because man can form groups, while they cannot. Why can man form groups$99 Because of division (fen). How is division put into practice$100 Because of righteousness (yi). Therefore, when division is implemented by righteousness, there is harmony (he); harmony leads to unity (yi); unity leads to great strength (duo li); great strength leads to power (qiang); power overcomes things (sheng wu); thus, palaces can be built. Thus, ordering the four seasons, tailoring the myriad things, benefiting the world inclusively—there is no other reason than achieving this through division and righteousness."

This passage is highly critical. Man is weaker than the ox and slower than the horse, yet man commands them—why$101 Because man can "form groups" (neng qun)—forming an orderly social collective. How can man "form groups"$102 Because of "division" (fen)—social division of labor and hierarchical differentiation. How can "division" be implemented$103 Because of "righteousness" (yi)—principles of justice and moral norms. With "righteousness" realizing "division," harmony (he) is achieved; harmony leads to unity (yi); unity leads to "great strength" (duo li); great strength leads to "power" (qiang); power leads to "overcoming things" (sheng wu)—hence, homes can be built, seasons ordered, and things managed.

Conversely, without "division and righteousness" (fen yi)—without division of labor and moral norms—man cannot "form groups" and cannot form an effective social organization. Without a collective, individual strength is insignificant—even less than that of oxen and horses. This is the deeper meaning of "destitution" (qiong): not merely material lack, but a fundamental insufficiency in the capacity for survival.

Therefore, the proposition "contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution" reveals a profound sociological principle: Social order is a prerequisite for human survival. Without order, there is no cooperation; without cooperation, there is no production; without production, there is no survival. Contention destroys order, and thus destroys the basis of human existence.

This principle is echoed extensively in pre-Qin texts. In the Analects, Ji Shi chapter, Master Kong discusses the difference between a world under the Dao and one without it:

"When the world follows the Dao, rites, music, and military campaigns proceed from the Son of Heaven. When the world does not follow the Dao, rites, music, and military campaigns proceed from the feudal lords. If they proceed from the feudal lords, perhaps ten generations will pass without the rule being lost to lesser officials; if they proceed from high officials, perhaps five generations will pass without the rule being lost; if subsidiary ministers control the destiny of the state, perhaps three generations will pass without the rule being lost. When the world follows the Dao, governance does not fall into the hands of high officials. When the world follows the Dao, the common people do not engage in debate."

"When the world does not follow the Dao" (tian xia wu Dao)—that is, when social order collapses—the consequence is the continuous downward shift of power and the eventual disintegration of society, leading to ruin. "Perhaps ten generations will pass without the rule being lost" (gai shi shi xi bu shi yi)—when feudal lords exercise the authority of the Son of Heaven arbitrarily, ruin follows within about ten generations. This is precisely the political manifestation of "contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution."

The Zuo Zhuan, Yin Gong Eleventh Year records a famous statement:

"Rites are what organize the state, stabilize the ancestral altars, order the people, and benefit future generations." (Li, jing guo jia, ding she ji, xu min ren, li hou si ye.)

The function of Rites is to manage the state, stabilize the altars, order the people, and benefit descendants. Conversely, without Rites, the state cannot be managed, the altars cannot be stabilized, the people cannot be ordered, and descendants cannot benefit—this is the concrete reality of "destitution."

In the Guo Yu, there is a similar discussion:

"For sacrifice is the great constant of the state; and constants are what perfect governance. Therefore, one must be cautious in establishing sacrifices as the state's standard."

Sacrifice (one of the most important expressions of Rites) is the great constant of the state, the core element of political operation. If sacrifice is chaotic, politics becomes chaotic; if politics is chaotic, the state perishes.

From the perspective of ancient mythology, the pattern of "contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution" is reflected in ancient narratives. The Shang Shu, Yao Dian describes the age of Emperor Yao:

"The people were bright and clear; the various states harmonized; the myriad people lived in peaceful transition to order." (Bai xing zhao ming, xie he wan bang, li min yu bian shi yong.)

In the time of Emperor Yao, the people were enlightened, the states harmonized, and the populace lived in peace. This was a golden age of complete order. In contrast, the myths preceding this, such as Gonggong’s rage against Mount Buzhou and Chiyou’s rebellion, represent the archetypal narratives of "contention leading to chaos." Gonggong contended with Zhuanxu for the throne, resulting in the pillar of Heaven breaking and the Earth’s ropes snapping—the order of Heaven and Earth itself was destroyed, let alone human order!

The Shang Shu, Lü Xing also states:

"Chiyou was the first to create disorder, which spread to the common people. All men became thieves and brigands, robbing, grasping, and acting rebelliously. ... The Miao people did not accept benevolent guidance, so punitive measures were imposed on them, leading to the enactment of the Five Punishments, called 'Law.' Innocents were slaughtered, and the cruel practices of cutting off the nose, slicing off the foot, boring the skull, and tattooing the face were initiated."

Chiyou created disorder, which spread to the common people, and the world descended into great chaos. The Miao people rejected benevolent rule and instead used cruel punishments, resulting in even greater chaos. This is the ancient version of "contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution."

Section 5 "The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them": The Former Kings and the Creation of Rites

"The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them." (Xian wang e qi luan ye, gu zhi li yi yi fen zhi.)

This sentence marks the turning point of the entire passage. The descent from "humans are born with desires" to "chaos leads to destitution" describes a downward trajectory from human nature to chaos; "The Former Kings detested this chaos" signals a reversal—the beginning of an upward trajectory from chaos toward order.

First, who are the "Former Kings" (Xian Wang)$1

In the discourse of pre-Qin Confucians, "Former Kings" usually refers to the Sage Kings of antiquity—Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, and Wu. These Sage Kings are regarded as the creators of Rites and the founders of civilization. Master Xunzi says in the Fei Xiang (Against Physiognomy) chapter:

"The Sage measures others by himself. Thus, by measuring man by man, emotion by emotion, category by category, efficacy by utility, and the Dao by its ultimate extent, antiquity and the present are one. If categories do not contradict, the principle remains the same even over long periods."

The Sages understood human nature deeply—human desires, contention, and destitution—and thus could design rational institutions to respond to these problems.

However, in Xunzi’s usage, "Former Kings" may refer not only to specific historical figures but also to a theoretical concept: the "wisdom capable of creating Rites and Righteousness." Master Xunzi states in Xing’e:

"The Sages accumulated reflection and practiced artificial cultivation (wei), thereby generating Rites and Righteousness and establishing laws and standards. Therefore, Rites, Righteousness, laws, and standards are born from the artificiality (wei) of the Sages, not from human nature originally."

Rites, Righteousness, laws, and standards are created through "accumulated reflection and practiced artificial cultivation" (ji si lü, xi wei gu)—long-term thought and practice. They are not products of human natural disposition but achievements of human rational creation. Therefore, "Former Kings" here represents the "rational creators"—those capable of deeply observing the defects of human nature and designing appropriate solutions.

"Detested this chaos" (e qi luan ye)—The character e (恶) can mean "to detest" (wù), but it can also be understood more broadly as "to be concerned about"—the Former Kings not only disliked chaos but were deeply worried about its consequences. It was this concern that drove them to establish Rites and Righteousness.

"So they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them" (gu zhi li yi yi fen zhi)—Here appear two key terms: "establish" (zhi) and "differentiate" (fen).

"Establish" (Zhi)—To create, to manufacture. This character is vital as it implies the artificial nature (ren wei xing) of Rites. Rites do not exist inherently but are artificially established. This aligns perfectly with the concept of wei (artificial effort) in Xunzi’s Xing’e theory—the natural state of humanity is chaos, and order is established through artificial effort—wei. Rites are the highest achievement of wei.

However, does "establish" (zhi) mean Rites were created entirely from scratch$2 Probably not. Although Xunzi emphasizes the artificial nature of Rites, he does not believe they are arbitrary. The establishment of Rites must conform to certain principles—ensuring that "desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires"—meaning the design of Rites must align with the balance between human desires and material resources. This balance is objective, not subjectively imagined by the Former Kings. Therefore, the "establishment" (zhi) by the Former Kings was less about "creation" and more about "discovery"—discovering the laws of balance between desire and resources and institutionalizing them.

"Differentiate among them" (Fen zhi)—The character fen here has a dual meaning. First, "to distinguish"—to classify people according to different standards, granting them different statuses, rights, and obligations. Second, "to distribute"—to allocate social resources according to certain standards, ensuring everyone receives their due share.

The Wang Zhi chapter provides a more detailed exposition of fen:

"When divisions are equal, there is no partiality; when status is equal, there is no obedience; when the masses are equal, there is no command. ... Two noble ones cannot serve each other, and two lowly ones cannot command each other—this is the decree of Heaven. When status and position are equal and desires/aversions are the same, if things cannot be moderated, contention will inevitably arise, leading to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution. The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them, establishing degrees of rich and poor, noble and base, sufficient for mutual oversight—this is the foundation for nurturing the world."

"Division" (fen) is not the end goal but a means. Through "division," "harmony" (he) is achieved; through harmony, "unity" (yi) is achieved; through unity, "great strength" (duo li) is achieved. Everyone has their position, their function, their share—farmers have their fields, merchants their goods, artisans their tasks, officials their duties, lords their lands. Each stays in their place and performs their duty, and society becomes orderly.

This idea resonates with the Analects. In the Yan Yuan chapter, Master Kong’s response to Duke Jing of Qi’s inquiry about governance is:

"If the ruler is a ruler, the minister a minister, the father a father, and the son a son." (Jun jun, chen chen, fu fu, zi zi.)

"Ruler as ruler, minister as minister, etc."—everyone acts according to their station. This is the most concise expression of "division" (fen).

The Analects, Zi Lu chapter further emphasizes this:

Zi Lu asked, "If the ruler of Wei awaits your service to govern, what will you take as the first thing$3" The Master said, "It must be to rectify names (zheng ming)!" Zi Lu said, "Is that so$4 You are too idealistic! How should they be rectified$5" The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, You! A gentleman, concerning what he does not know, should take a reserved attitude. If names are not rectified, speech will not accord with the truth. If speech does not accord with the truth, affairs cannot be carried to completion. If affairs cannot be carried to completion, rites and music will not flourish. If rites and music do not flourish, punishments and penalties will not be appropriate. If punishments and penalties are not appropriate, the people will not know where to put their hands and feet. Therefore, a gentleman’s names must be such that they can be spoken, and what is spoken must be practicable."

Master Kong believed the primary task of governance is "rectifying names" (zheng ming)—ensuring names match realities. If names are confused (ming fen luan le), speech does not flow smoothly; if speech does not flow smoothly, affairs cannot be completed; if affairs are not completed, Rites and Music will not flourish. This chain clearly illustrates the fundamental importance of "names and divisions" (ming fen), or "division" (fen), for social order.

From the ancient perspective, the narrative of "Former Kings establish Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them" is widely paralleled in pre-Qin literature. The Shang Shu, Yao Dian records the governance of Emperor Yao:

"He was able to illuminate excellent virtue, thus bringing harmony to the Nine Relatives. When the Nine Relatives were harmonious, he brought order to the Hundred Clans. When the Hundred Clans were enlightened and clear, he harmonized the Myriad States." (Ke ming jun de, yi qin jiu zu. Jiu zu ji mu, ping zhang bai xing. Bai xing zhao ming, xie he wan bang.)

Emperor Yao first "illuminated virtue," then "harmonized the Nine Relatives," then "brought order to the Hundred Clans," and finally "harmonized the Myriad States"—this is a process of constructing order from the inside out, from the near to the far. "Bringing order to the Hundred Clans" (ping zhang bai xing)—ensuring all officials have their proper sequence and know their duties—is the concrete practice of "establishing Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them."

The Shang Shu, Hong Fan records that Ji Zi presented the "Nine Categories" (the nine great laws for governing the state) to King Wu of Zhou, which include:

"The Five Matters: First, appearance (mao); second, speech (yan); third, sight (shi); fourth, hearing (ting); fifth, thought (si). Appearance should be reverent (gong), speech obedient (cong), sight clear (ming), hearing acute (cong), and thought wise (rui). Reverence achieves solemnity; obedience achieves order; clarity achieves sagacity; acuity achieves planning; wisdom achieves sainthood."

The "Five Matters"—demeanor, speech, observation, hearing, thought—each has its standard: reverence, obedience, clarity, acuity, wisdom. This is the concrete manifestation of "measure and boundary" at the level of personal cultivation. Through regulating individual conduct, the construction of social order is achieved.

Section 6 "Nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands": The Positive Ritualism of Nurturing and Satisfying

"Thereby nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands." (Yi yang ren zhi yu, gei ren zhi qiu.)

This sentence is extremely concise and reveals one of the core tenets of Master Xunzi’s theory of Rites: the purpose of Rites is not to suppress desire but to satisfy it.

"Nurture" (Yang)—To rear, to nourish. This word is finely chosen. It suggests an attitude of care, a posture of fostering. Human desire is like a sapling that needs careful cultivation and guidance to grow—it cannot be allowed to grow wild (it would become a weed), nor can it be uprooted (then nothing would remain). "Nurture" means finding an appropriate way between these two extremes.

"Satisfy" (Gei)—To supply, to fulfill. "Satisfying human demands" (gei ren zhi qiu) means fulfilling human pursuits. This word indicates that Rites do not just set limits but actively provide satisfaction. Rites are not a wall that only says "no"; they are a system that can say "yes"—telling people that their needs can be met through legitimate means.

This stance can be termed "Positive Ritualism"—the function of Rites is not only negative restriction (telling people what not to do) but also positive fulfillment (telling people what can be done and how to do it).

This idea of "Positive Ritualism" has precursors in Master Kong’s thought. In the Analects, Yang Huo chapter, it is recorded:

The Master said, "What do Rites mean$6 Do they mean jade and silk$7 What does Music mean$8 Does it mean bells and drums$9"

Master Kong points out that Rites are not merely external forms like jade and silk, and Music is not merely external sounds like bells and drums. The essence of Rites and Music lies in their inner spiritual meaning. And this spiritual meaning includes responding to and fulfilling human emotional needs.

In the Analects, Ba Yi chapter, there is a profound statement:

Lin Fang asked about the root of Rites. The Master said, "A great question! As for Rites, it is better to be frugal than extravagant; as for mourning, it is better to be sorrowful than formal."

Master Kong believed the root of Rites lies in true feeling and practical sentiment, not in external elaborateness. The root of mourning Rites lies in inner grief, not in the perfection of ceremony. This shows that Rites are meant to accommodate human emotions—they are a means of emotional expression and realization.

Master Xunzi further systematized this idea. In his view, the "nurturing desire" function of Rites is manifested in several aspects:

First, Rites provide rational means for satisfying material needs. Master Xunzi discusses the specifications of Rites concerning food, clothing, housing, and utensils later in the Discourse on Rites; the core purpose of these specifications is to ensure that everyone receives material satisfaction corresponding to their social status.

Second, Rites provide rational means for expressing emotional needs. Master Xunzi discusses Rites such as mourning and sacrifice, which are highly emotionally charged. Mourning Rites are for expressing and accommodating grief—when a relative passes away, one is deeply sorrowful; the mourning Rite provides a set of ceremonies that allow one to appropriately express and vent this sorrow, preventing excessive grief that harms the body, and avoiding suppressing emotion until it festers. Master Xunzi says:

"As for the Rite of Three Years’ Mourning, what is it for$10 It is to establish culture (wen) in accordance with genuine emotion (qing), to convey the distinction between kinship, nobility, and baseness, and to conclude the period of the final interment with sorrow and reverence." (Li Lun)

This is a concrete manifestation of Rites "nurturing desire" (accommodating emotional needs).

Third, Rites provide rational pathways for realizing social needs. Humans have not only material and emotional needs but also social needs—the desire to be respected, recognized, and to belong. By setting clear social hierarchies and behavioral norms, Rites allow everyone to know their place in society and what they should expect. This clarity itself provides a sense of security and belonging.

"Nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands" stands in sharp contrast to the Daoist strategies of "reducing desire" or "non-desire." In Daoism, desire is seen as needing reduction or elimination; in Xunzi, desire is seen as needing satisfaction and guidance. These two strategies stem from fundamentally different views of human nature and society.

The Daoist strategy can be summarized as "subtraction"—reducing desire and returning to simplicity. Laozi says:

"The five colors blind the eye; the five tones deafen the ear; the five flavors dull the palate; racing and hunting inflame the mind; hard-to-get goods impede conduct. Thus the Sage nourishes the belly, not the eye; so he rejects the latter and takes the former." (Laozi, Chapter 12)

Laozi believed excessive sensory stimulation damages sensory capacity and mental health. Therefore, the Sage satisfies only basic physiological needs ("nourishes the belly") and does not pursue excessive sensory enjoyment ("not the eye").

Xunzi’s strategy can be summarized as "addition"—acknowledging desire, satisfying it, but guiding and regulating it during satisfaction. This is a more active and realistic strategy. It does not fantasize about changing human nature but, by acknowledging it, constructs a system capable of reasonably satisfying that nature.

A passage in Li Ji: Yue Ji can be seen as echoing Xunzi’s idea of "nurturing desire":

"Man is born quiet; this is the nature endowed by Heaven. Stimulated by things, he is moved; this is the desire of nature. When things arrive, he knows them, and then preferences and aversions are formed. If preferences and aversions are without moderation internally, and knowledge is lured externally, and one fails to reflect internally, the principle of Heaven is extinguished. For the stimuli from things are endless, and human preferences and aversions are unrestrained, so that when things arrive, man is transformed by things. Man being transformed by things means extinguishing the principle of Heaven and exhausting human desire."

This passage points out that if human likes and dislikes are "without moderation internally" (wu jie yu nei), man is transformed by external things, ultimately "extinguishing the principle of Heaven and exhausting human desire." Here, the opposition between "principle of Heaven" and "human desire" emerges. However, it is worth noting that this passage does not advocate "extinguishing desire" but "restraining desire" (jie yu)—setting limits on desire. This aligns with Xunzi’s "nurturing desire"—"nurturing" inherently includes "restraining," much like nurturing a sapling requires pruning its branches.

Section 7 "This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires": Dynamic Balance between Desire and Material Things

"This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires." (Shi yu bi bu qiong hu wu, wu bi bu qu yu yu.)

This sentence is one of the core propositions in Master Xunzi’s theory of Rites, and its profound insight warrants repeated reflection.

"Desires do not exhaust material things" (yu bu qiong hu wu)—Material resources will never be entirely depleted by human desire. That is, material resources can always supply human desires; there will never be a situation where resources are completely exhausted.

"Material things are not subjugated by desires" (wu bu qu yu yu)—Material things will never expand to the point of completely consuming all resources. That is, desire will never swell to the point of overwhelming all material things.

These two phrases express a dynamic state of equilibrium: Desire does not exhaust resources, and resources are not subdued by desire. The two maintain a tension, a relationship of mutual constraint and mutual support.

Why is it "not exhaust" (bu qiong) rather than "equal to"$11 Why is it "not subjugated" (bu qu) rather than "unrelated"$12 Because Master Xunzi deeply recognized that the relationship between desire and material things is not a static relationship of equal measure but a dynamic interaction. Desire is constantly changing, and material resources are also constantly changing. The task of Rites is not to establish a fixed balance once and for all, but to continuously maintain this dynamic equilibrium—ensuring that both remain in a state of "not exhausting" and "not subjugated."

This concept of dynamic balance is exceedingly profound. It implies that Master Xunzi is not seeking a rigid, static order but a flexible order capable of adapting to change. This echoes the Daoist concept of "dynamic harmony" in many ways.

Laozi states:

"Is not the way of Heaven like the bending of a bow$13 What is high, it presses down; what is low, it raises up. What is excessive, it diminishes; what is deficient, it supplements. The way of Heaven diminishes the excessive and supplements the deficient. The way of man is otherwise: it diminishes the deficient to serve the excessive. Who can have excess to serve the world$14 Only the one who possesses the Dao." (Laozi, Chapter 77)

The "way of Heaven" (Tian zhi Dao) described by Laozi—pressing down the high, raising up the low, diminishing the excessive, supplementing the deficient—is precisely a mechanism of dynamic equilibrium. When one side becomes too much, it is curtailed; when one side is insufficient, it is supplemented. This deeply resembles Master Xunzi’s dynamic balance between desire and material resources—they interact, constrain, and support each other.

The difference is that Laozi attributes this dynamic balance to the "Way of Heaven"—Nature itself possesses this self-regulating capacity; whereas Xunzi attributes it to the "Establishments of the Former Kings"—it must be realized through active institutional design. This is the fundamental divergence between Daoist "non-action" (wu wei) and Confucian "active effort" (you wei)—Daoism believes Nature has self-regulating ability and thus advocates letting things be; Confucianism believes human society differs from Nature and requires active institutional construction to maintain order.

However, if we analyze closely, Master Xunzi’s designed institutions (Rites) aim precisely at achieving a "Nature-like" balance—"the two support each other and grow." Does this imply that although Xunzi advocates for "active effort," the goal of this effort is to attain a state of "Nature"$15 That is, the best institution is one that mimics the self-regulating mechanism of the natural world$16

This hypothesis can be supported by another passage in Master Xunzi’s work. In Tian Lun (Discourse on Heaven):

"The movement of Heaven is constant; it does not exist for Yao, nor perish for Jie. Respond to it with order, and there will be auspiciousness; respond to it with chaos, and there will be misfortune."

The constant laws of Heaven do not depend on sage kings or perish because of tyrants. Responding to these laws with proper governance leads to auspiciousness; responding with chaos leads to misfortune. Here, "responding with order" (ying zhi yi zhi) is the construction of artificial institutions; but this construction must "respond to" (ying) the constant laws of Heaven.

Therefore, although Xunzi emphasizes the artificial nature of Rites, he does not believe Rites can violate the Way of Heaven. The "establishment" (zhi) of Rites must be based on the laws of Heaven and Earth. "This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires"—this dynamic balance itself might be the manifestation of the Way of Heaven in human society.

From the perspective of the I Ching, the proposition "desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires" is extremely close to the spirit of the Tai (Peace/Concord) Hexagram:

"Tai: Small things go out, great things come in. Auspicious and successful."

Tai Hexagram has the Earth above and Heaven below, symbolizing the harmony and intercourse of Heaven and Earth. Yang energy rises, and Yin energy descends; the two interact and blend, allowing all things to flow smoothly and prosperously. This state of Yin-Yang interaction is a vivid depiction of the dynamic balance Master Xunzi describes between desire and material resources—the two communicate, constrain, and support each other.

The Tuan Zhuan for the Tai Hexagram states:

"When Heaven and Earth mingle, all things are connected. When superiors and inferiors interact, their intentions are the same. Internally Yin, externally Yang; internally strong, externally yielding; internally the superior man, externally the lesser man."

When Heaven and Earth interact, all things connect; when superiors and inferiors interact, intentions align. This state of "interaction" (jiao)—mutual exchange and action—is a vibrant portrayal of "the two support each other and grow."

Section 8 "The two support each other and grow, this is the origin of Rites": A Cosmological Vision of Co-existence and Mutual Growth

"The two support each other and grow, this is the origin of Rites." (Liang zhe xiang chi er zhang, shi li zhi suo qi ye.)

This final sentence of the section serves as the summary and the ultimate principle of Master Xunzi’s theory of Rites. The "two" refer to desire and material things (or more broadly, human needs and the provision of Heaven and Earth). "Support each other" (xiang chi) means mutual support and maintenance. "And grow" (er zhang) means they grow together.

The phrase "support each other and grow" conveys an extremely high realm. It does not mean desire is suppressed or resources are saved—that would be a static, passive balance. It means desire and material things grow together—desire develops continuously under proper guidance, and material resources increase through rational utilization—the two mutually promote and drive each other, forming a virtuous cycle of upward spiral.

This concept of "co-existence and mutual growth" has deep roots in pre-Qin thought.

The I Ching, Xi Ci Zhuan (Commentary on the Images) states:

"One Yin and one Yang constitute the Dao. That which follows it is goodness (shan); that which completes it is nature (xing)."

The alternation of Yin and Yang is the Dao. Yin and Yang are not adversarial; they complement and push each other. Just like Master Xunzi’s description of the relationship between desire and material things—it is not a zero-sum game (one increases as the other decreases), but a positive-sum game (both can grow together).

Laozi Chapter 42 states:

"The Dao produced One; One produced Two; Two produced Three; Three produced the myriad things. The myriad things carry Yin on their back and embrace Yang in their arms, and are harmonized by the vital qi between them."

"The myriad things carry Yin on their back and embrace Yang in their arms, and are harmonized by the vital qi between them" (Wan wu fu yin er bao yang, chong qi yi wei he)—all things contain both Yin and Yang forces, which achieve harmony through their "intermingling qi" (chong qi). This cosmological view of Yin-Yang harmony bears a deep structural similarity to Master Xunzi’s "dynamic balance" in the social realm.

From the perspective of ancient mythology, the idea of "co-existence and mutual growth" can be traced back to even more ancient cosmological traditions. The interactions between various deities and natural forces recorded in the Shan Hai Jing often exhibit a kind of dynamic balance—different forces constrain and supplement each other, jointly maintaining the operation of the world.

In the Guo Yu, Zheng Yu, there is a famous discourse by Shi Bo:

"For harmony truly begets things; uniformity cannot be sustained. To balance the other with the other is called harmony, thus it can be abundant and bring things back to it. If one uses the same to supplement the same, everything will eventually be discarded. Therefore, the Former Kings mixed Earth with Metal, Wood, Water, and Fire to complete the hundred things."

"Harmony truly begets things; uniformity cannot be sustained" (He shi sheng wu, tong ze bu ji)—"Harmony" (harmony within difference) creates all things, while "uniformity" (complete sameness) cannot develop continuously. This idea is profound. Master Xunzi’s "the two support each other and grow" is the manifestation of "harmony begets things" in the social sphere—desire and material things are different, even tense, forces, but precisely because of this difference and tension, they can grow together through mutual interaction. If there were only desire without the constraint of material things, or only material things without the impetus of desire, neither could achieve "growth" (zhang)—sustained development.

"This is the origin of Rites" (shi li zhi suo qi ye)—This is the origin of Rites. What Master Xunzi reveals here is not a simple historical event ("The Former Kings established Rites in such and such a year"), but a philosophical principle: Rites exist because a dynamic balance mechanism is necessary between human desires and the material resources of Heaven and Earth. Rites are this balance mechanism. It is not external coercion but an intrinsic necessity—if human society is to survive and develop, it must have Rites.

With this, Master Xunzi has completed his answer to the ultimate question, "Where do Rites originate$17" His answer’s logic can be summarized in the following steps:

1. Humans are born with desires (Fact of human nature).
2. When desires are present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek (Desire leads to seeking).
3. When seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided (Unordered seeking leads to contention).
4. Contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution (Contention leads to chaos, chaos leads to hardship).
5. The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them (Former Kings created Rites to respond to chaos).
6. Thereby nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands (The function of Rites is to satisfy desire, not to suppress it).
7. This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires (Rites maintain a dynamic balance between desire and material things).
8. The two support each other and grow (Desire and material things grow together under the regulation of Rites).
9. This is the origin of Rites (This is the origin of Rites).

This logical chain proceeds from human nature, through the analysis of social phenomena, arrives at the concept of institutional design, and ultimately ascends to a cosmological level—"the two support each other and grow." The rigor of its reasoning, the breadth of its vision, and the depth of its principles are unparalleled among the pre-Qin masters.

Chapter 3 Honoring the Root, Embracing Utility, Returning to the Great Unity: The Dialectic of Culture (Wen) and Principle (Li)

Section 1 "Honoring the root is called culture (wen)": What is the Root, and What is Culture (Wen)$18

"Honoring the root (ben) is called culture (wen); embracing utility (yong) is called principle (li). When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity (Da Yi); this is called Great Flourishing (Da Long)."

This passage is exceedingly concise, with every character bearing immense weight. It discusses the internal structure of Rites—wen and li—and the highest state of their unification—Da Yi and Da Long.

First, let us examine "Honoring the root is called culture (wen)."

"Root" (Ben)—The fundamental basis, the origin. In the context of Rites, what is the "root"$19 Commentators have offered different interpretations. Considering the context, the "root" should refer to the spiritual essence of Rites, the internal basis of Rites. Specifically, the "root" can be understood on the following levels:

First Level: The Root of Emotion (Qing). The root of Rites lies in genuine human emotion. The root of mourning rites lies in sorrow; the root of sacrificial rites lies in reverence; the root of coming-of-age rites lies in the consciousness of adulthood; the root of marriage rites lies in the emotion between husband and wife. These genuine emotions are the fundamental basis that gives Rites meaning. Without genuine emotion, even the most exquisite ceremony is merely an empty shell.

Master Kong had profound insights into this:

"If a man lacks benevolence (ren), what use are Rites to him$20 If a man lacks benevolence, what use is Music to him$21" (Analects, Yong Ye)

If a person lacks inner "benevolence"—genuine emotion and moral consciousness—then what meaning do Rites and Music hold for him$22 This shows that the root of Rites lies in internal emotion and moral consciousness, not in external ceremonial forms.

In the Analects, Yang Huo chapter, Zai Wo questioned Confucius about the three-year mourning period:

Zai Wo asked, "A mourning period of three years is too long! If a gentleman refrains from Rites for three years, Rites will certainly break down; if he refrains from Music for three years, Music will certainly collapse. When the old grain has been consumed and the new grain has come up, when the fire drill has been changed—a year should be enough." The Master said, "Can you eat rice and wear silk and feel at ease$23" Zai Wo replied, "I can feel at ease." The Master said, "If you can feel at ease, then do it! When a gentleman observes mourning, he does not relish delicious food, does not enjoy music, and does not feel comfortable in his dwelling, which is why he does not do these things. Now, if you feel at ease, then do it!" When Zai Wo left, the Master said, "Zai Wo is not benevolent! He was nurtured for three years before being separated from his parents’ care. The three-year mourning period is universally observed. Did Zai Wo receive three years of loving care from his parents$24"

What criterion did Confucius use to judge whether the three-year mourning period should be shortened$25 Not the simplicity or complexity of the ceremony, nor economic calculation, but emotion—"Can you feel at ease$26" If one’s heart is uneasy, the period should not be shortened; if one’s heart is at ease, then do as you please. "Does not relish delicious food, does not enjoy music, does not feel comfortable in his dwelling"—this heartfelt sorrow while observing mourning is the "root" of mourning Rites.

Second Level: The Root of Righteous Principle (Yi). The root of Rites lies not only in emotion but also in righteous principle. Behind every ritual specification, there is a rationale, a principle. The root of sacrificial rites lies in the spirit of "repaying the source and returning to the beginning"—repaying the grace of Heaven, Earth, and ancestors. The root of mourning rites lies in the principle of "cautiously handling death and remembering the distant past"—treating the end of life with solemnity and remembering the departed. The root of coming-of-age and marriage rites lies in the principle of "maturing the individual and establishing the family"—defining the individual's social identity and family relations. These reasons and principles are the root of Ritual Principle (Li Zhi Yi Li Zhi Ben).

Li Ji: Ji Tong states:

"In governing people, nothing is more urgent than Rites. Rites have Five Constants, and none is more weighty than sacrifice. Sacrifice is not something that comes externally from things; it is born from the heart internally. The heart is moved and expresses it through Rites. Therefore, only the virtuous can fully realize the meaning of sacrifice."

"Not something that comes externally from things, but is born from the heart internally" (Fei wu zi wai zhi zhe ye, zi zhong chu sheng yu xin ye)—Sacrifice is not an external form imposed on man, but a natural outflow of internal emotion. "The heart is moved and expresses it through Rites" (Xin chu er feng zhi yi li)—When the heart is moved, it expresses it through Rites. This demonstrates that the "root" (internal emotion and principle) precedes the "culture" (external form).

Third Level: The Root of the Way of Heaven (Tian Dao). On a deeper level, "root" can also refer to the Way of Heaven—the fundamental law of the cosmos. Rites are reasonable not only because they respond to human emotion and embody principles of righteousness, but also because they conform to the Way of Heaven and Earth. Zuo Zhuan, Zhao Gong Twenty-Fifth Year quotes Master Zichan:

"Rites are the constant laws of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth, and the conduct of the people."

Rites are the warp and woof of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth, and the standard for human conduct. Their root lies in the Way of Heaven and Earth.

So, why is "honoring the root" called "culture" (wen)$27 Here, "culture" (wen) does not mean "embellishment" or "splendor" in the usual sense, but carries a deeper meaning.

In the pre-Qin context, "culture" (wen) has multiple meanings, including "literary grace," "texture," "civilization," and "pattern/code." In the Analects, Yong Ye chapter:

"When substance (zhi) overpowers culture (wen), the result is rustic. When culture (wen) overpowers substance (zhi), the result is affectedness (shi). When culture and substance are well-blended, that is the gentleman."

Here, "culture" (wen) is contrasted with "substance" (zhi), referring to external embellishment and expression. However, in the proposition "Honoring the root is called culture (wen)," the meaning of wen is different. It does not refer to external decoration but to "having culture to observe" (you wen ke guan)—when one truly upholds the root, their conduct naturally manifests grace, order, and aesthetic beauty.

This understanding is confirmed by the I Ching, Bi Gua (Adorning Hexagram), Tuan Zhuan:

"When strong and yielding intermingle, this is the pattern of Heaven (tian wen); when culture (wen) illuminates and thereby stops (zhi), this is human culture (ren wen). By observing the pattern of Heaven, one perceives the changes of time; by observing human culture, one transforms the world."

"Human culture" (ren wen)—human civilization—is the result of "illuminating and thereby stopping." "Stopping" (zhi) means having something to uphold—a point of firm adherence. When one has firm adherence ("honoring the root"), their conduct naturally presents itself as civilized and ordered—this is "culture" (wen). Therefore, "Honoring the root is called culture" means: True "culture" is not external decoration but internal adherence—when one truly honors the fundamental basis, "culture" naturally emerges.

This idea is profound. It subverts the common opposition between "culture" (wen) and "substance" (zhi), suggesting that true "culture" actually derives from honoring the "substance" (the "root"). The deepest root yields the most beautiful cultural expression. This aligns with Confucius’s ideal of "well-blended culture and substance" (wen zhi bin bin), but Xunzi goes further, pointing to the intrinsic unity between "culture" and "substance."

Section 2 "Embracing utility is called principle (li)": The Relationship between Utility (Yong) and Principle (Li)

"Embracing utility (yong) is called principle (li)." (Qin yong zhi wei li.)

"Utility" (Yong)—Function, practical application. In the context of Rites, "utility" refers to the actual effect and concrete function of Rites. Rites are not empty displays but possess tangible uses. They are used to regulate human behavior, harmonize human emotion, maintain social order, and distribute social resources. These practical functions constitute the "utility" (yong) of Rites.

"Embracing" (Qin)—Approaching closely, being close to the practical. "Embracing utility" means being close to practical application and not deviating from functional utility. Master Xunzi emphasizes here that Rites cannot become mere formalism detached from their practical function. The design of every ritual specification must have a practical purpose.

"Principle" (Li)—Order, texture, law. "Embracing utility is called principle" means: When one truly approaches the practical function of Rites, one can see the underlying order and principle. Although the specific observances of Rites may be numerous, they possess a clear internal order—when to do what, how much to do, up to what degree—all these have clear rules. And these rules are all derived from practical utility.

The term "principle" (li) has rich meanings in the pre-Qin context. Han Feizi, Jie Lao states:

"Principle (li) is the pattern that completes things. Length and shortness, large and small, round and square, hard and brittle, heavy and light, white and black—these are called principle (li)."

"Principle" (li) is the texture or order of things—the internal determination that makes a thing what it is. Length, shortness, size, squareness, hardness, brittleness, weight, blackness, whiteness—these are all "principles" (li) of things. In the context of Rites, "principle" (li) is the internal determination that makes a Rite what it is—which Rite to use in which occasion, how much material to use, what level of differentiation—all these specific regulations are derived from "utility" (practical function).

Master Xunzi also discusses "principle" (li) in the Zheng Ming chapter:

"All things of the same category and disposition have the same way of discerning things through their innate sense organs, hence they can be compared and correlated. This is why they share a conventional name to mutually recognize one another. Differences in physical form and color texture are distinguished by the eye; differences in sound clarity, turbidity, balanced tuning, or strange tones are distinguished by the ear; differences in sweet, bitter, salty, sour, pungent flavors are distinguished by the mouth; differences in fragrant, foul, pungent, fishy, or strange smells are distinguished by the nose. Differences in tending the sick, hot and cold, smooth and sharp, heavy and light are distinguished by the physical body. Differences in pleasure, sorrow, joy, anger, grief, delight, love, and aversion are distinguished by the mind."

"Color texture" (se li)—color and texture—are objects perceived by the eye. "Texture" (li) is the surface pattern of things, perceptible to the senses. Similarly, the "principle" (li) of Rites is also perceivable and graspable—it is not mysterious or unknowable, but clear and discernible.

By contrasting "Embracing utility is called principle" with "Honoring the root is called culture," we can discover a relationship of complementarity:

• "Honoring the root is called culture" (Gui ben zhi wei wen): Starting from the internal basis, culture and order naturally emerge. This is a process from the inside out.
• "Embracing utility is called principle" (Qin yong zhi wei li): Starting from external function, order and rule naturally manifest. This is a process from the outside in.

The two, one internal and one external, one root and one utility, together constitute the complete internal structure of Rites.

Section 3 "When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity": The State of the Great Unity

"When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity (Da Yi); this is called Great Flourishing (Da Long)."

"When the two combine to form culture" (Liang zhe he er cheng wen)—When the "two" (ben and yong, culture and principle) combine, they constitute true "culture" (wen). Here, wen is a higher-level concept—not simply "grace" or "form," but a perfect state where interior and exterior, root and utility, are unified.

True "culture" (wen) is not empty form divorced from the "root" (ben), nor is it abstract principle divorced from "utility" (yong); it is the organic unification of ben and yong—possessing intrinsic spiritual grounding and effective practical results; conforming to the root of the Way of Heaven and closely adhering to the utility of human affairs.

"Return to the Great Unity" (Yi gui Da Yi)—Returning to the "Great Unity." What is the "Great Unity" (Da Yi)$28

The concept of "Great Unity" is highly significant in the pre-Qin context. In Daoism, "Great Unity" is closely related to the "Dao." Zhuangzi, Tian Xia chapter, when discussing the lineage of ancient scholarship:

"The men of old were complete! They matched the spirits and the luminous, they blended Heaven and Earth, nurtured the myriad things, harmonized the world, and benefited the common people. They were clear about the fundamental numbers and connected to the final measures; their movements encompassed the six directions and four quarters, the small and the large, the fine and the coarse—wherever they moved, they were present. Those whose clarity resided in numbers and measures, ancient laws handed down by court historians still retain much of it. Those whose teachings are scattered throughout the world and established in the Central States, scholars of the Hundred Schools occasionally mention and discuss them... When the world was in great chaos, Sages and the wise were unclear, morality was not unified, and the world grasped one narrow perception and prided themselves on it."

"Morality was not unified" (Dao de bu yi)—In antiquity, morality was unified; later it fractured, and the Hundred Schools each held to one side. The era Master Zhuangzi recalls as "morality unified" is precisely the state of "Great Unity"—where all knowledge, all practice, and all values returned to unity.

In the Li Ji: Li Yun, the concept of "Great Unity" appears in another form:

"For Rites must be based on the Great Unity, which differentiates into Heaven and Earth, transforms into Yin and Yang, changes into the Four Seasons, and arranges into the various spirits. Its descent is called destiny (ming); its official post in Heaven is..."

"Rites must be based on the Great Unity" (Li bi ben yu Da Yi)—The root of Rites lies in the "Great Unity." Here, this "Great Unity" is described as the total source of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things—it differentiates into Heaven and Earth, transforms into Yin and Yang, changes into the Four Seasons, and arranges into the spirits. The root of Rites lies in this total source of the cosmos.

Connecting this passage from Li Ji: Li Yun with Xunzi’s "return to the Great Unity," we can see: Master Xunzi’s "Great Unity" may not just be an abstract philosophical concept but may also possess cosmological significance—it points toward the total harmony of Heaven, Earth, and all things, the ultimate unity of the cosmic order.

When the "culture" (wen) and "principle" (li) of Rites—the root and utility—are perfectly combined, Rites transcend the level of mere human institutions and ascend to the level of the Way of Heaven and Earth—they cease to be merely human creation and become the natural manifestation of the Way of Heaven in the human world. This state is the "Great Unity"—the unification of man and Heaven/Earth, of emotion and culture, of root and utility.

"This is called Great Flourishing" (Fu shi zhi wei Da Long)—This is called "Great Flourishing." "Great Flourishing" is another expression for the "Great Unity." "Great Unity" emphasizes the aspect of "unity"—transcending all division and opposition; "Great Flourishing" emphasizes the aspect of "flourishing"—Rites reaching their utmost, most complete state.

"Great Flourishing" (Da Long) does not mean "greatness" in the ordinary sense of size, but "greatness" in the sense of "nothing surpassing it"—there is no flourishing greater than this. This is the ultimate ideal and the highest standard of Rites.

We might ask: In practice, can the "Great Flourishing" be achieved$29 Or is it merely an ideal, a goal always ahead$30

From the perspective of Master Xunzi’s overall thought, "Great Flourishing" should be attainable—but only by the Sages. The later description, "moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly, he is a Sage," is precisely the description of the practitioner of "Great Flourishing." The Sage can skillfully maneuver among the various levels of Rites ("moving deftly," fang huang zhou xie) and grasp the appropriate order in every detail (qu de qi ci xu)—the highest manifestation of this ability is "Great Flourishing"—the perfect unification of culture (wen) and principle (li).

However, for ordinary people, although "Great Flourishing" cannot be immediately achieved, it can serve as the direction and goal of cultivation. Xunzi, Quan Xue states:

"Thus, without accumulating steps of one pace, one cannot travel a thousand li; without accumulating small streams, one cannot form rivers and seas. A swift horse cannot leap ten paces in one bound; a common nag that trots ten times will cover the distance through perseverance. If one chips away and gives up, rotten wood will not break; if one chips away without stopping, metal and stone can be carved."

The path of self-cultivation lies in accumulation—accumulating step by step, one can eventually reach a very high state. "Great Flourishing," as the highest ideal of Rites, is also approached gradually through continuous cultivation and practice.

The Book of Songs, Da Ya, Han Lu states:

"The happy and contented gentleman, his fortune is also happy and contented."

When the gentleman’s cultivation reaches a state of natural harmony, the blessings of Heaven and Earth naturally descend. This state of "natural harmony" is the manifestation of "Great Flourishing" in life.

Section 4 The Three Tiers and the Life Cycle of Rites: Correspondence

By connecting "begins with simplicity (zhuo), is completed in culture (wen), and ends in joyful calibration (yue jiao)" with the three ranks of "utmost perfection (zhi bei)," "next degree (qi ci)," and "lowest degree (qi xia)," we can see an interesting structural relationship:

"Begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo) corresponds to the primordial form of Rites—simple emotional expression—which bears some correspondence to "the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity" (qi xia fu qing yi gui Da Yi ye). Both point toward the simplicity and authenticity of emotion.

"Completed in culture" (cheng hu wen) corresponds to the perfected form of Rites—elaborate rituals and norms—which corresponds somewhat to "utmost perfection, both emotion and culture are fully realized" (zhi bei, qing wen ju jin) (though qing wen ju jin requires not only completeness of wen but also fullness of qing).

"Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao) corresponds to the harmonious state of Rites—the perfect unification of freedom and order—which is a higher state transcending the distinction between qing and wen.

However, this correspondence is not mechanical. "Begins with simplicity" is the temporal starting point, while "the lowest degree reverts to emotion" is the lowest rank; their similarity lies in "simplicity," but the simplicity of "begins with simplicity" is natural and undeveloped, whereas the simplicity of "reverting to emotion" is a return achieved after development—these two simplicities, though superficially similar, have different connotations.

This reminds us of Zhuangzi’s parable of "Chaos" (Hun Dun):

"The Emperor of the South Sea was named Shu (Haste); the Emperor of the North Sea was named Hu (Suddenness); the Emperor of the Center was named Hun Dun (Chaos). Shu and Hu often met in the dwelling place of Hun Dun, who treated them very well. Shu and Hu conspired to repay Hun Dun’s kindness, saying, 'Every man has seven openings for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing; this one alone has none—let us try to chisel them open for him.' They chiseled one opening a day; after seven days, Hun Dun died."

"Chaos" (Hun Dun)—the undifferentiated state of primordial unity—is the original unity. When artificial "chiseling" (differentiation, embellishment) is imposed upon it, Chaos dies. This parable can be seen as a critical reflection on the developmental process from "simplicity" (zhuo) to "culture" (wen): The original simplicity (Chaos/ zhuo) possesses its own perfection, and artificial embellishment (wen) might actually destroy this perfection.

But Master Xunzi would disagree with Zhuangzi’s view. In Xunzi’s view, although "simplicity" (zhuo) possesses rustic beauty, it is insufficient—society requires "culture" (wen) to establish order and ensure function. "Reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" is merely a fallback position when attainment is impossible, not the ideal to pursue. The ideal remains "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—the perfect unification of emotion and form.

This divergence points again to the fundamental difference between Confucianism and Daoism: their differing evaluations of the value of "culture" (wen). Confucianism affirms the value of civilization, believing the development from primitive to civilized society is progress; Daoism is skeptical of civilization, believing the process of civilization is also a process of alienation—man moves further away from Nature and further away from the Dao.

However, in any case, the fact that Master Xunzi ranks "reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" as one of the tiers of Rites (albeit the lowest) demonstrates his full recognition of the value of "emotion" (qing). In his system, "emotion" is the foundation of Rites—without genuine emotion, even the most exquisite form is worthless.

Section 5 Three Tiers and the Relationship to the Life Cycle of Rites

If we connect "begins with simplicity (zhuo), is completed in culture (wen), and ends in joyful calibration (yue jiao)" with the three ranks of "utmost perfection (zhi bei)," "next degree (qi ci)," and "lowest degree (qi xia)," we can see an interesting structural relationship:

"Begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo) corresponds to the primordial form of Rites—simple emotional expression—which has some correspondence with "the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity" (qi xia fu qing yi gui Da Yi ye). Both point toward the simplicity and authenticity of emotion.

"Completed in culture" (cheng hu wen) corresponds to the perfected form of Rites—elaborate rituals and norms—which has some correspondence with "utmost perfection, both emotion and culture are fully realized" (zhi bei, qing wen ju jin).

"Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao) corresponds to the harmonious state of Rites—the perfect unification of freedom and order—which is a higher state transcending the distinction between qing and wen.

However, this correspondence is not mechanical. "Begins with simplicity" is the temporal starting point, while "the lowest degree reverts to emotion" is the lowest rank; their similarity lies in "simplicity," but the simplicity of "begins with simplicity" is natural and undeveloped, whereas the simplicity of "reverting to emotion" is a return achieved after development—these two simplicities, though superficially similar, have different connotations.

This leads us to recall Zhuangzi’s parable of "Chaos" (Hun Dun):

"The Emperor of the South Sea was named Shu (Haste); the Emperor of the North Sea was named Hu (Suddenness); the Emperor of the Center was named Hun Dun (Chaos). Shu and Hu often met in the dwelling place of Hun Dun, who treated them very well. Shu and Hu conspired to repay Hun Dun’s kindness, saying, 'Every man has seven openings for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing; this one alone has none—let us try to chisel them open for him.' They chiseled one opening a day; after seven days, Hun Dun died."

"Chaos" (Hun Dun)—the undifferentiated state of primordial unity—is the original unity. When artificial "chiseling" (differentiation, embellishment) is imposed upon it, Chaos dies. This parable can be seen as a critical reflection on the developmental process from "simplicity" (zhuo) to "culture" (wen): The original simplicity (zhuo) possesses its own rustic beauty, but artificial embellishment (wen) might actually destroy this perfection.

But Master Xunzi would disagree with Zhuangzi’s view. In Xunzi’s view, although "simplicity" (zhuo) possesses rustic beauty, it is insufficient—society requires "culture" (wen) to establish order and ensure function. "Reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" is merely a fallback position when attainment is impossible, not the ideal to pursue. The ideal remains "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—the perfect unification of emotion and form.

This divergence points again to the fundamental difference between Confucianism and Daoism: their differing evaluations of the value of "culture" (wen). Confucianism affirms the value of civilization, believing the development from primitive to civilized society is progress; Daoism is skeptical of civilization, believing the process of civilization is also a process of alienation—man moves further away from Nature and further away from the Dao.

But in any case, the fact that Master Xunzi ranks "reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" as one of the tiers of Rites (albeit the lowest) demonstrates his full recognition of the value of "emotion" (qing). In his system, "emotion" is the foundation of Rites—without genuine emotion, even the most exquisite form is worthless.

Section 6 The Deep Inquiry into the Relationship between Emotion (Qing) and Culture (Wen)

Having discussed the three tiers of Rites—"emotion and culture fully realized," "emotion and culture alternately prevail," and "revert to emotion to return to the Great Unity"—we must conduct a deeper inquiry into the relationship between "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen).

First, is there an inevitable tension between "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen)$31

Logically, "emotion" (qing) is natural, spontaneous, and individualistic; "culture" (wen) is artificial, normative, and socialized. The relationship between Nature and Artifice, between the individual and society, inherently involves tension. A person’s true inner feeling may not always align with society’s formal requirements—for instance, in mourning Rites, a person might not genuinely feel sorrow (perhaps they were distant from the deceased), yet the Rites require them to display sorrow (because they are a relative). In such a case, "emotion" and "culture" conflict. If they perform sorrow according to the Rites, it is "culture prevailing over emotion" (wen sheng qing)—hypocrisy; if they honestly admit they do not feel sorrow and refuse to perform, it is "emotion prevailing over culture" (qing sheng wen)—impropriety. How to resolve this conflict$32

Master Xunzi does not directly answer this, but inferring from his overall thought, he might say: The educational function of Rites lies precisely here. Through long-term cultivation of Rites and Righteousness, human emotion itself is shaped and elevated—a person cultivated by Rites and Righteousness will no longer have purely natural, spontaneous emotions, but emotions that have been educated and aligned with propriety. He will not only know that he should grieve at a funeral but will genuinely feel grief—because the cultivation of Rites and Righteousness has internalized the spirit of "cautiously handling death and remembering the distant past" into his emotional structure.

Xunzi, Xiu Shen (Self-Cultivation) states:

"Rites are what rectify the self... Therefore, without Rites, man cannot live; without Rites, affairs cannot be completed; without Rites, the state cannot be tranquil."

Rites are used to rectify the self. Through the practice of Rites, both mind and body are rectified—not only does external conduct conform to norms, but internal emotion also tends toward what is proper. This is Master Xunzi’s thought on "transforming nature and establishing artificiality" (hua xing qi wei)—changing human natural disposition through later education and self-cultivation so that it conforms to righteousness.

Second, is the perfect unification of "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen) possible$33

Theoretically, "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin) as the highest ideal implies that the perfect unification of qing and wen is possible. But in practice, this perfect unification is extremely rare—perhaps only achievable by the Sages.

Master Kong’s self-description of his lifelong cultivation:

"The Master said, 'At fifteen, I set my heart on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the Mandate of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was attuned to it. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired without overstepping what was right.'" (Analects, Wei Zheng)

"At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired without overstepping what was right" (Cong xin suo yu, bu yu ju)—By the age of seventy, he could follow his heart's desires without transgressing the rules. This is the vivid embodiment of "emotion and culture fully realized"—the inner emotion ("following the heart's desire") and the external norm ("not overstepping the rules") are completely unified—not by emotion submitting to norms, nor norms suppressing emotion, but emotion itself being in accordance with norms, and norms themselves being what emotion yearns for.

The Zhong Yong (Doctrine of the Mean) states:

"When joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure are not yet aroused, this is called the Mean (Zhong). When they are aroused and all in due measure, this is called Harmony (He). The Mean is the great root of the world; Harmony is the universal path of the world. When the Mean and Harmony are carried to their utmost extent, Heaven and Earth assume their correct positions, and the myriad things are nourished."

"When they are aroused and all in due measure" (Fa er jie zhong jie)—Emotional expression is perfectly appropriate. This is the perfect unification of "emotion" and "culture." "Mean" is the internal state before emotion is aroused—centered and impartial; "Harmony" is the external state after emotion is aroused—harmonious and measured. "Carrying the Mean and Harmony to their utmost extent" (Zhi Zhong He)—reaching the state of Mean and Harmony— "Heaven and Earth assume their correct positions, and the myriad things are nourished." This cosmological description elevates "emotion and culture fully realized" to the level of Heaven and Earth—when an individual’s emotion perfectly unifies with form, the entire cosmos is harmonized because of it.

Section 7 The Relationship between Three Tiers and the Life Cycle of Rites

If we connect "begins with simplicity (zhuo), is completed in culture (wen), and ends in joyful calibration (yue jiao)" with the three ranks of "utmost perfection (zhi bei)," "next degree (qi ci)," and "lowest degree (qi xia)," we can see an interesting structural relationship:

"Begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo) corresponds to the primordial form of Rites—simple emotional expression—which bears some correspondence to "the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity" (qi xia fu qing yi gui Da Yi ye). Both point toward the simplicity and authenticity of emotion.

"Completed in culture" (cheng hu wen) corresponds to the perfected form of Rites—elaborate rituals and norms—which has some correspondence with "utmost perfection, both emotion and culture are fully realized" (zhi bei, qing wen ju jin).

"Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao) corresponds to the harmonious state of Rites—the perfect unification of freedom and order—which is a higher state transcending the distinction between qing and wen.

However, this correspondence is not mechanical. "Begins with simplicity" is the temporal starting point, while "the lowest degree reverts to emotion" is the lowest rank; their similarity lies in "simplicity," but the simplicity of "begins with simplicity" is natural and undeveloped, whereas the simplicity of "reverting to emotion" is a return achieved after development—these two simplicities, though superficially similar, have different connotations.

This leads us to recall Zhuangzi’s parable of "Chaos" (Hun Dun):

"The Emperor of the South Sea was named Shu (Haste); the Emperor of the North Sea was named Hu (Suddenness); the Emperor of the Center was named Hun Dun (Chaos). Shu and Hu often met in the dwelling place of Hun Dun, who treated them very well. Shu and Hu conspired to repay Hun Dun’s kindness, saying, 'Every man has seven openings for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing; this one alone has none—let us try to chisel them open for him.' They chiseled one opening a day; after seven days, Hun Dun died."

"Chaos" (Hun Dun)—the undifferentiated state of primordial unity—is the original unity. When artificial "chiseling" (differentiation, embellishment) is imposed upon it, Chaos dies. This parable can be seen as a critical reflection on the developmental process from "simplicity" (zhuo) to "culture" (wen): The original simplicity (zhuo) possesses its own rustic beauty, but artificial embellishment (wen) might actually destroy this perfection.

But Master Xunzi would disagree with Zhuangzi’s view. In Xunzi’s view, although "simplicity" (zhuo) possesses rustic beauty, it is insufficient—society requires "culture" (wen) to establish order and ensure function. "Reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" is merely a fallback position when attainment is impossible, not the ideal to pursue. The ideal remains "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—the perfect unification of emotion and form.

This divergence points again to the fundamental difference between Confucianism and Daoism: their differing evaluations of the value of "culture" (wen). Confucianism affirms the value of civilization, believing the development from primitive to civilized society is progress; Daoism is skeptical of civilization, believing the process of civilization is also a process of alienation—man moves further away from Nature and further away from the Dao.

But in any case, the fact that Master Xunzi ranks "reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" as one of the tiers of Rites (albeit the lowest) demonstrates his full recognition of the value of "emotion" (qing). In his system, "emotion" is the foundation of Rites—without genuine emotion, even the most exquisite form is worthless.

Section 7 Three Tiers and the Life Cycle of Rites: Correspondence

If we connect "begins with simplicity (zhuo), is completed in culture (wen), and ends in joyful calibration (yue jiao)" with the three ranks of "utmost perfection (zhi bei)," "next degree (qi ci)," and "lowest degree (qi xia)," we can see an interesting structural relationship:

"Begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo) corresponds to the primordial form of Rites—simple emotional expression—which bears some correspondence to "the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity" (qi xia fu qing yi gui Da Yi ye). Both point toward the simplicity and authenticity of emotion.

"Completed in culture" (cheng hu wen) corresponds to the perfected form of Rites—elaborate rituals and norms—which has some correspondence with "utmost perfection, both emotion and culture are fully realized" (zhi bei, qing wen ju jin).

"Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao) corresponds to the harmonious state of Rites—the perfect unification of freedom and order—which is a higher state transcending the distinction between qing and wen.

However, this correspondence is not mechanical. "Begins with simplicity" is the temporal starting point, while "the lowest degree reverts to emotion" is the lowest rank; their similarity lies in "simplicity," but the simplicity of "begins with simplicity" is natural and undeveloped, whereas the simplicity of "reverting to emotion" is a return achieved after development—these two simplicities, though superficially similar, have different connotations.

This leads us to recall Zhuangzi’s parable of "Chaos" (Hun Dun):

"The Emperor of the South Sea was named Shu (Haste); the Emperor of the North Sea was named Hu (Suddenness); the Emperor of the Center was named Hun Dun (Chaos). Shu and Hu often met in the dwelling place of Hun Dun, who treated them very well. Shu and Hu conspired to repay Hun Dun’s kindness, saying, 'Every man has seven openings for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing; this one alone has none—let us try to chisel them open for him.' They chiseled one opening a day; after seven days, Hun Dun died."

"Chaos" (Hun Dun)—the undifferentiated state of primordial unity—is the original unity. When artificial "chiseling" (differentiation, embellishment) is imposed upon it, Chaos dies. This parable can be seen as a critical reflection on the developmental process from "simplicity" (zhuo) to "culture" (wen): The original simplicity (zhuo) possesses its own rustic beauty, but artificial embellishment (wen) might actually destroy this perfection.

But Master Xunzi would disagree with Zhuangzi’s view. In Xunzi’s view, although "simplicity" (zhuo) possesses rustic beauty, it is insufficient—society requires "culture" (wen) to establish order and ensure function. "Reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" is merely a fallback position when attainment is impossible, not the ideal to pursue. The ideal remains "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—the perfect unification of emotion and form.

This divergence points again to the fundamental difference between Confucianism and Daoism: their differing evaluations of the value of "culture" (wen). Confucianism affirms the value of civilization, believing the development from primitive to civilized society is progress; Daoism is skeptical of civilization, believing the process of civilization is also a process of alienation—man moves further away from Nature and further away from the Dao.

But in any case, the fact that Master Xunzi ranks "reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" as one of the tiers of Rites (albeit the lowest) demonstrates his full recognition of the value of "emotion" (qing). In his system, "emotion" is the foundation of Rites—without genuine emotion, even the most exquisite form is worthless.

Section 8 The Sage’s Ultimate Attainment: Implicit Grasping of Order

"If he resides perfectly in the middle, moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly, he is a Sage (sheng ren)." (Yu zhi qi zhong yan, fang huang zhou xie, qu de qi ci xu, shi sheng ren ye.)

This sentence describes the realm of the Sage—the highest practitioner of Rites.

"Resides perfectly in the middle" (Yu zhi qi zhong yan)—Within the range of Rites’ flourishing, reduction, and middle course.

"Moving deftly" (Fang huang)—Unhurried and at ease; graceful and radiant. "Deftly" (huang) also means shining brightly. Combined, fang huang describes a state of ease and openness.

"Grasping the order implicitly" (Qu de qi ci xu)—"Implicitly" (qu) refers to every bend or detail; "grasping the order" (de qi ci xu) means precisely grasping the sequence. Combined, this describes the Sage’s mastery over every detail of Rites—nothing is too much or too little, neither too early nor too late, neither flourishing nor reduced, just right.

"He is a Sage" (Shi sheng ren ye)—This is the Sage.

What is the distinction between the Sage and the superior man$1 The superior man can "achieve the utmost flourishing above, exhaust the utmost reduction below, and reside in the middle"—this is already remarkable, but his application might still involve some intentional effort. The Sage goes further—he not only skillfully applies Rites across flourishing, reduction, and the middle course, but he achieves "grasping the order implicitly" (qu de qi ci xu)—every detail is perfectly appropriate, naturally so, without conscious effort.

This corresponds to Confucius’s state of "following what my heart desired without overstepping what was right" at seventy—the complete embodiment of "grasping the order implicitly" in personal life. In this realm, Rites cease to be external norms and become internal consciousness—every word and action of the Sage naturally conforms to Rites, effortlessly, like breathing.

This realm is precious because it resolves the eternal tension between "culture" (wen) and "substance" (zhi)—for the Sage, wen is zhi, and zhi is wen; the two are completely unified. The Sage’s expression of emotion is itself the most perfect form, and the most perfect form inherently carries the most genuine emotion.

Section 9 Differentiating Men by Rites: Gentleman vs. Commoner

"If one possesses this ability, he is a gentleman (shi junzi); if outside this, he is a commoner (min)." (Ren you shi, shi junzi ye; wai shi, min ye.)

"Possesses this" (you shi)—Possesses the cultivation and ability regarding Rites described above. This person is a shi or junzi (gentleman/superior man).

"Outside this" (wai shi)—Outside this range, meaning lacking this cultivation and ability. This person is a "commoner" (min).

The distinction here between shi junzi and min is not one of hereditary rank (it does not mean nobles are gentlemen and commoners are the masses) but one of level of cultivation. One who can flexibly employ Rites across flourishing, reduction, and the middle course is a shi junzi; one who cannot achieve this is a min.

This classification based on cultivation level, rather than birth status, is an important tradition in pre-Qin Confucian thought. Confucius said:

"There is no distinction in education." (You jiao wu lei.) (Analects, Zi Jin)

Education is not graded by status—anyone can improve their cultivation through learning. Therefore, the status of shi junzi is not innate but acquired through self-cultivation.

Xunzi, Xiu Shen also states:

"He who loves the law and practices it is a shi. He who holds firm to his will and embodies it is a gentleman (junzi). He who is perfectly clear and inexhaustible is a Sage. If a man has no law, he is agitated and lost; if he has the law but does not grasp its meaning, he is merely diligent; if he follows the law and also grasps its deeper implications, only then is he truly refined."

"Loves the law and practices it" (hao fa er xing)—This is a shi. "Holds firm to his will and embodies it" (du zhi er ti)—This is a junzi. "Perfectly clear and inexhaustible" (qi ming er bu jie)—This is a Sage. This passage clearly distinguishes three levels—shi, junzi, and Sage—based entirely on the level of cultivation, not birth status.

Section 10 The Sage’s Highest Realm: Moving Deftly and Implicitly Grasping Order

"If he resides perfectly in the middle, moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly, he is a Sage." (Yu zhi qi zhong yan, fang huang zhou xie, qu de qi ci xu, shi sheng ren ye.)

This sentence describes the Sage—the ultimate practitioner of Rites—whose realm is reached "in the middle" (yu zhi qi zhong yan).

"Moving deftly" (Fang huang)—Unrushed and elegant; righteous and radiant. "Deftly" (huang) also means shining brightly. Combined, fang huang describes a state of ease and openness.

"Grasping the order implicitly" (Qu de qi ci xu)—"Implicitly" (qu) refers to every bend or detail; "grasping the order" (de qi ci xu) means precisely grasping the sequence. Combined, this describes the Sage’s complete mastery over every detail of Rites—nothing is too much or too little, neither too early nor too late, neither flourishing nor reduced, just right.

This corresponds to Confucius’s state of "following what my heart desired without overstepping what was right" at seventy—the complete embodiment of "grasping the order implicitly" in personal life. In this realm, Rites cease to be external norms and become internal consciousness—every word and action of the Sage naturally conforms to Rites, effortlessly, like breathing.

This realm is precious because it resolves the eternal tension between "culture" (wen) and "substance" (zhi)—for the Sage, wen is zhi, and zhi is wen; the two are completely unified. The Sage’s expression of emotion is itself the most perfect form, and the most perfect form inherently carries the most genuine emotion.

This realm is precisely what Master Xunzi seeks. It is the perfection of "joyful calibration" (yue jiao), where freedom and order merge seamlessly.

Chapter 6 Depth, Greatness, Height, Brightness: The Four Virtues of Rites

Section 1 "That which is deep (hou) is the accumulation of Rites": The Profundity of Rites

"Thus, that which is deep (hou) is the accumulation of Rites; that which is great (da) is the expanse of Rites; that which is high (gao) is the flourishing (long) of Rites; that which is bright (ming) is the perfection (jin) of Rites."

This sentence summarizes the highest qualities of Rites using four terms—"Depth, Greatness, Height, Brightness"—which can be called the "Four Virtues of Rites."

"That which is deep (hou) is the accumulation of Rites" (Hou zhe, Li zhi ji ye)—"Depth" (Hou) is the accumulation of Rites.

"Deep" (Hou)—Profound, mellow. "Accumulation" (Ji)—Accumulation, sedimentation. "Depth" is the profound foundation formed through long-term accumulation.

The cultivation of Rites cannot be achieved overnight; it requires long-term study, practice, and reflection. The term "accumulation" (ji) is entirely consistent with the concept of "accumulation" repeatedly emphasized by Master Xunzi in the Quan Xue chapter:

"Accumulate soil to form a mountain, and wind and rain will arise from it; accumulate water to form a deep pool, and dragons will emerge from it; accumulate goodness to form virtue, and divine perception will be spontaneously attained, and the Sage’s mind will be complete. Thus, without accumulating steps of one pace, one cannot travel a thousand li; without accumulating small streams, one cannot form rivers and seas."

Accumulating soil to form a mountain, accumulating water to form a pool, accumulating goodness to form virtue—all great achievements result from accumulation. The "depth" (hou) of Rites is also formed through the daily accumulation of cultivation. It is not superficial decoration but a quality ingrained in the bones—like the depth of the Earth, it bears all things without wavering.

The I Ching, Kun Gua (Receptive Hexagram) states:

"The status of Earth is Receptive; the superior man thereby strengthens his virtue and carries all things."

"Strengthening virtue and carrying all things" (Hou de zai wu)—The "depth" (hou) of Rites is the concrete manifestation of this profound virtue. A truly cultivated person, in practicing Rites, is as deep as the Earth—able to respond calmly to any situation without losing measure.

The Book of Songs, Da Ya, Yi states:

"The gentle and respectful man, this is the foundation of virtue."

The gentle and respectful person (wen wen gong ren)—gentle and profound—is a vivid portrayal of the "depth" (hou) of Rites.

Section 2 "That which is great (da) is the expanse of Rites": The Breadth of Rites

"That which is great (da) is the expanse of Rites" (Da zhe, Li zhi guang ye)—"Greatness" (Da) is the breadth of Rites.

"Great" (Da)—Vast, grand. "Expanse" (Guang)—Broad, extensive. "Greatness" is the breadth of Rites' scope of application—it is not confined to one aspect or one occasion, but encompasses every facet of human life and every corner of society.

Master Xunzi says in the Quan Xue chapter:

"Where does learning begin$2 Where does it end$3 It begins with reciting the Odes and ends with reading the Rites. In terms of meaning, it begins with being a scholar (shi) and ends with being a Sage."

The end of learning is "reading the Rites" (du Li)—studying and practicing Rites. This is because Rites are the most expansive area of learning—they cover politics, ethics, religion, aesthetics, social interaction, and all other fields.

The Zuo Zhuan, Zhao Gong Twenty-Fifth Year records Zhao Jianzi asking Master Zichan: "Dare I ask what Rites are$4" Master Zichan replied with an extremely broad explanation:

"Rites are the constant laws of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth, and the conduct of the people. ... They model the clarity of Heaven, adapt to the nature of Earth, giving rise to the Six Qi... employing the Five Elements. The Qi form the Five Flavors, manifest as the Five Colors, resonate as the Five Tones... They serve as the standard for superiors and inferiors in ruling and ministering by modeling the righteousness of Earth, delineate the inside and outside of husband and wife by connecting the Two Things, symbolize the clarity of Heaven through fathers, sons, brothers, aunts, nephews, in-laws, and marriage alliances, follow the Four Seasons through governance, labor, and practical affairs, emulate the killing and slaying of thunder through penalties and prisons, and resemble the reproduction and nurturing of Heaven through warmth, compassion, and gentleness."

All the norms of Rites—the relationships between ruler and minister, husband and wife, father and son—are concrete expressions of social hierarchy. "Modeling the righteousness of Earth" (ze di yi) indicates that this hierarchy is not arbitrary human creation but is based on the underlying principles of Heaven and Earth.

The Zhong Yong (Doctrine of the Mean) states:

"Confucius inherited the teachings of Yao and Shun and patterned himself after Wen and Wu. He modeled the seasons of Heaven above and adapted to the soil and water below. He is like Heaven and Earth in that he encompasses and carries all things, and covers and shades all things. He is like the Four Seasons in their regular succession, and like the sun and moon in their successive illumination. The myriad things grow together without harming one another; the Dao operates universally without contradicting itself."

Like Heaven and Earth encompassing all, like the Four Seasons in regular succession, like the sun and moon illuminating in turns—this is the ultimate expression of the "Greatness" (Da) of Rites. It is all-embracing like Heaven and Earth, and ceaseless in operation like the Four Seasons.

Section 3 "That which is high (gao) is the flourishing (long) of Rites": The Elevation of Rites

"That which is high (gao) is the flourishing (long) of Rites" (Gao zhe, Li zhi long ye)—"High" (Gao) is the flourishing and sublime nature of Rites.

"High" (Gao)—Sublime, lofty. "Flourishing" (Long)—Flourishing, esteemed. "High" is the spiritual character of Rites—it is not a common behavioral norm but the highest expression of human spirit.

The I Ching, Qian Gua (Creative Hexagram) states:

"The movement of Heaven is vigorous; the superior man thereby strengthens himself ceaselessly."

The vigorous, ceaseless movement of Heaven—the superior man emulates this and strives unceasingly. This spirit of vigorous ceaselessness is the source of the "Height" (Gao) of Rites. The highest character of Rites is not weak yielding but vigorous self-strengthening—striving for higher realms while observing norms.

The Book of Songs, Da Ya, Zheng Min states:

"Heaven produced the masses of people, giving them things and norms. The people hold fast to their innate nature, loving this excellent virtue."

Heaven produced the masses, giving them things and norms. People hold fast to their innate nature, loving excellent virtue (Hao shi yi De)—this innate tendency to love beautiful virtues is the human basis for the "Height" (Gao) of Rites.

Section 4 "That which is bright (ming) is the perfection (jin) of Rites": The Illumination of Rites

"That which is bright (ming) is the perfection (jin) of Rites" (Ming zhe, Li zhi jin ye)—"Brightness" (Ming) is the penetration and thoroughness of Rites.

"Bright" (Ming)—Clear, penetrating. "Perfection" (Jin)—Exhaustion, utmost perfection. "Brightness" is the state where one has achieved a penetrating understanding and perfect realization of all dimensions of Rites—from theory to practice, from spirit to form, from flourishing (long) to reduction (sha).

"Brightness" is the ultimate destination of "Depth," "Greatness," and "Height"—only with profound accumulation ("Depth"), broad scope ("Greatness"), and sublime character ("Height"), can one finally reach the state of penetrating clarity ("Brightness")—understanding everything about Rites thoroughly and implementing them flawlessly.

The I Ching, Xi Ci Zhuan states:

"The Yi is where the Sages exhaust depth and analyze subtlety. Only by being profound can one connect the will of all under Heaven; only by being subtle can one complete the affairs of all under Heaven; only by being spiritual can one reach quickly without haste, and arrive without moving."

"Exhaust depth and analyze subtlety" (Ji shen er yan ji)—reaching the deepest point and discerning the subtlest point—this state of "depth" and "subtlety" corresponds precisely to "Brightness is the perfection of Rites." The Sage, by exhaustively pursuing the limits of Rites, reaches the state of "connecting the will of all under Heaven" and "completing the affairs of all under Heaven"—everything is clear, and everything is just right.

Section 5 Unification of Depth, Greatness, Height, and Brightness

The four virtues—Depth, Greatness, Height, and Brightness—are not four independent qualities but an organic whole.

"Depth" (Hou) is the foundation—without profound accumulation, there can be no broad scope, sublime character, or penetrating understanding.

"Greatness" (Da) is the scope—if one is deep but not broad, one becomes confined to one aspect and cannot encompass the entirety of Rites.

"Height" (Gao) is the degree—if one is broad but not high, one remains mediocre and cannot reach the sublime realm of Rites.

"Brightness" (Ming) is the articulation—if one is high but not bright, one remains abstract and cannot be implemented in concrete practice.

The four aspects progress layer by layer, interlinked, constituting the full spectrum of the perfect character of Rites.

The structure of these four virtues reminds us of the five steps of learning described in the Zhong Yong: "Study broadly (bo xue), inquire accurately (shen wen), reflect carefully (shen si), distinguish clearly (ming bian), and practice earnestly (du xing)." "Study broadly" corresponds to "Greatness" (breadth); "inquire accurately" and "reflect carefully" correspond to "Depth" (thoroughness); "distinguish clearly" corresponds to "Brightness" (penetration); and "practice earnestly" corresponds to "Height" (sublime practical character). Although the correspondence is not one-to-one, the spirit is the same—both pursue a comprehensive, deep, and penetrating state of cultivation.

Chapter 7 The Book of Odes says, "Rites and ceremonies perfectly measure, laughter and speech perfectly accord": Proving Rites with the Odes

Section 1 Quoting the Odes: The Meaning of the Citation

"The Book of Odes says: 'Rites and ceremonies perfectly measure (zong du), laughter and speech perfectly accord (zong huo).’ This is what is meant."

Master Xunzi concludes his essay by citing a passage from the Book of Odes (Shi Jing) to summarize and verify his arguments. The practice of quoting the Odes as verification is extremely common in pre-Qin texts. Master Kong once said:

"The Three Hundred Odes can be summed up in one phrase: 'Without depravity.'" (Analects, Wei Zheng)

The Book of Odes is not merely a work of literature but a foundational text for pre-Qin scholarship—it contains rich thought on politics, ethics, ritual, and philosophy, serving as a primary basis for the arguments of the Hundred Schools.

"Rites and ceremonies perfectly measure" (Li yi zong du)—Rites and ceremonies completely conform to the standard. Zong means "completely" or "entirely." Du means "standard" or "measure." All rites perfectly adhere to the standards—neither more nor less, neither leaning to one side nor the other.

"Laughter and speech perfectly accord" (Xiao yu zong huo)—Laughter and speech are perfectly measured. Huo means "to gain" or "to hit the mark," here meaning perfectly appropriate and in moderation. Laughter and speech are always appropriate—not overly casual ("rustic") nor overly stiff ("affected").

These two lines come from the Book of Odes, Xiao Ya, Chu Ci, describing the banquet scene following a sacrifice. In the banquet, participants both observed all ritual norms ("Rites and ceremonies perfectly measure") and maintained a natural, joyful atmosphere ("laughter and speech perfectly accord"). This is a vivid portrayal of Master Xunzi’s ideal: "emotion and culture fully realized" or "ending in joyful calibration." Within the complete framework of Rites, emotions are fully and appropriately expressed; amidst free and joyous laughter, order and norms are consciously observed.

Section 2 The Essence of Measure (Du) in "Perfectly Measure"

The character du (measure) in "Rites and ceremonies perfectly measure" echoes the du (measure) in "measure, quantity, division, boundary" mentioned earlier.

"Measure" (Du)—Standard, scale, criterion. Every rite has its "measure"—when to do what, to what extent, and where to stop. The totality of these "measures" constitutes the complete normative system of Rites.

"Perfectly measure" (Zong du)—Completely adhering to measure. This implies that not a single step is omitted or deviated from—every detail is just right. This is precisely the state of the Sage mentioned earlier—"grasping the order implicitly" (qu de qi ci xu). The Sage’s performance of Rites is perfectly ordered in every bend (qu)—this is "perfectly measure" (zong du).

The Analects, Tai Bo chapter records Master Kong’s highest praise for Tai Bo:

"The Master said, 'Tai Bo, one can truly call him possessing the utmost virtue! He thrice yielded the realm to others, yet the people had no way to praise him.' "

Tai Bo yielded the throne three times, and the people did not know how to praise him—because his actions were so natural, without any trace of intentional display. This state of "no way to praise" (wu de er cheng) is the ultimate expression of "perfectly measure" (zong du)—Rites are performed so perfectly that they seem not to be performed at all.

Section 3 The Essence of Accord (Huo) in "Perfectly Accord"

The character huo (accord/gain) in "Laughter and speech perfectly accord" (Xiao yu zong huo) is also worth deep consideration.

"Accord" (Huo)—To have a gain, to hit the target, meaning perfectly appropriate and in moderation. "Laughter and speech perfectly accord" does not mean that laughter and speech yield a tangible profit, but that they are always exactly right—laughing when one should laugh, speaking when one should speak, laughing just as loud as one should, speaking just as much as one should—everything is just right.

This reminds us of a famous saying by Master Kong:

"The Master said, 'There are three faults in serving a gentleman: to speak before one is spoken to is called rashness; to fail to speak when one should is called concealment; to speak without observing the gentleman’s expression is called blindness.'" (Analects, Ji Shi)

When speaking to a gentleman, there are three faults: speaking before it is your turn is rashness; failing to speak when it is your turn is concealment; speaking without observing the other’s expression is blindness. These three faults are all instances of "laughter and speech not according" (xiao yu bu huo)—speaking without propriety. Conversely, "laughter and speech perfectly accord" means: speaking when appropriate, remaining silent when not, and speaking only when the moment is right—every word hits the mark.

Section 4 "This is what is meant": The Concluding Meaning

"This is what is meant." (Ci zhi wei ye.)

Master Xunzi uses this phrase from the Book of Odes to conclude and summarize his entire argument. His intention is that the beautiful scene described in the Book of Odes—where "Rites and ceremonies perfectly measure, laughter and speech perfectly accord"—is the literary expression of the ideal state of Rites he has been discussing.

Theoretically, this ideal state is:

• "Emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—Emotion and form both reach their extremes.
• "When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity" (liang zhe he er cheng wen, yi gui Da Yi)—Root and utility are perfectly unified, returning to the Great Unity.
• "Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao)—Consciously observing order amidst harmony and joy.
• "Moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly" (fang huang zhou xie, qu de qi ci xu)—Skillfully mastering every detail.
• Possessing the qualities of "Depth, Greatness, Height, and Brightness" (hou, da, gao, ming).

In practice, this ideal state is exactly as described in the Book of Odes—during sacrificial banquets, all rites conform to standards, and all laughter and speech are perfectly appropriate—solely solemn yet naturally free, both regulated and liberal, both profound and joyous.

Chapter 8 A Counter-Reflection and Supplement from the Perspective of Pre-Qin Daoism

Section 1 Master Laozi on Rites: When the Great Dao is Lost, Virtue Follows

After deeply interpreting Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, let us shift perspective and examine these arguments from a Daoist standpoint.

Laozi’s attitude toward Rites is concentrated in Chapter 38 of the Laozi:

"The highest virtue does not abide in virtue, and thus it possesses virtue. The lowest virtue does not let go of virtue, and thus it is without virtue. The highest benevolence acts, yet acts without pretense. The highest righteousness acts, yet acts with pretense. The highest Rites act, and when no one responds, they roll up their sleeves and impose them by force. Therefore, when the Dao is lost, virtue follows. When virtue is lost, benevolence follows. When benevolence is lost, righteousness follows. When righteousness is lost, Rites follow. Rites are the thin veneer of loyalty and trust, and the beginning of chaos."

Laozi arranges Dao, Virtue (De), Benevolence (Ren), Righteousness (Yi), and Rites (Li) in a descending sequence: the highest is the Dao, followed by Virtue, then Benevolence, then Righteousness, and the lowest is Rites. Each step down represents a loss—when the Dao is lost, Virtue is needed; when Virtue is lost, Benevolence is needed; when Benevolence is lost, Righteousness is needed; when Righteousness is lost, Rites are needed.

"Rites are the thin veneer of loyalty and trust, and the beginning of chaos" (Fu li zhe, zhong xin zhi bo er luan zhi shou)—Rites are the result of loyalty and trust growing thin, and the start of disorder. This judgment stands in sharp contrast to Master Xunzi’s high affirmation of Rites.

However, if we carefully analyze Laozi’s statement, we find that what he criticizes is not Rites themselves, but the alienation of Rites—when Rites detach from the inner spirit of Dao, Virtue, Benevolence, and Righteousness, becoming purely external forms, they cease to be a means of maintaining order and become the source of chaos. "The highest Rites act, and when no one responds, they roll up their sleeves and impose them by force" (Shang li wei zhi er mo zhi ying, ze rang bei er reng zhi)—The highest Rites (which have degenerated) are practiced, but when no one responds, force must be used. Rites that require enforcement have clearly lost their inner spiritual power.

From this perspective, Laozi’s critique is not contradictory to Xunzi’s assertion that "Honoring the root is called culture"—Xunzi also emphasizes that Rites must be based on the "root" (inner spirit) and cannot become empty forms. Laozi criticizes Rites that lack the "root," while Xunzi seeks Rites that preserve the "root"—their direction is actually consistent.

The deeper divergence is this: Laozi believes that when society needs Rites to maintain order, it signifies moral decline—the best state is to return to the realm of the Dao, where Rites are fundamentally unnecessary. Xunzi, conversely, believes human nature dictates that society always needs Rites—not because morality has declined, but because humans naturally have desires and naturally need "measure and boundary."

Section 2 Master Zhuangzi on Rites: The True Emotion of Life and Nature

Master Zhuangzi’s attitude toward Rites is more complex than Laozi’s. He features both sharp satire against worldly Rites and a certain affirmation of their deeper spiritual essence.

In the Zhuangzi, Ma Ti (Horse Hoof) chapter, Zhuangzi uses a vivid analogy to critique how artificial norms harm natural essence:

"The horse’s hooves can tread on frost and snow, its coat can withstand wind and cold. Grazing on grass and drinking water, standing on its hooves to walk—this is the true nature of the horse. Even if one built imperial terraces and sleeping halls for it, they would be useless. Then came Bo Le, saying, 'I am good at training horses.' He burned them, plucked their hair, carved them, branded them, tied them with reins, and confined them in stables. Twelve or thirteen out of every ten died. He starved them, thirsted them, made them race, made them trot, disciplined them, and kept them in formation. Before them were the threats of the harness, and behind them the terror of the whip. By then, more than half the horses were dead."

The true nature of the horse is to run freely on the plains, drink water, and graze—this is the horse's "true nature" (zhen xing). But Bo Le (the alleged expert) brands, clips, carves, and restrains it—and ends up harming the horse. Zhuangzi uses this to illustrate: Human true nature is free and unrestrained, but Rites and Righteousness (systems assumed to manage people well) seek to regulate and constrain humans—resulting in the injury of human nature.

This critique is sharp and powerful. If we concede that humans possess a "natural disposition" (like the horse’s "true nature"), then any external norm—including Rites—risks harming that disposition. Master Xunzi might retort: Man’s "natural disposition" is to love profit and hate harm, seeking sensory gratification; without regulation, this leads to "contention leading to chaos, and chaos leading to destitution." But Master Zhuangzi might further argue: What you see as "loving profit and hating harm" is not true human nature but a "false nature" (wei xing) distorted by society. True human nature is unified with Heaven and Earth, free and unrestrained.

This debate hinges on the fundamental question of human nature—what is man’s "true nature"$5 Is it Master Xunzi’s "loving profit and hating harm," or Master Zhuangzi’s state of freedom$6 Pre-Qin times had no final answer, and neither does the present age.

However, it is worth noting that Master Zhuangzi does not completely negate all order. In the Zhuangzi, Tian Di chapter:

"In the Great Beginning there was nothingness, and nothingness had no name. When the One arose, there was the One but it was not yet formed. That which allows things to be born is called virtue (De); that which is unformed but has boundaries yet no division is called destiny (Ming); when movement stops and things are born, the resulting physiological structure is called form (Xing); when the form preserves the spirit, each has its own inherent order; this is called nature (Xing)."

"Each has its own inherent order (ge you yi ze), this is called nature (xing)"—Every thing possesses its own "inherent order" or principle, which is its "nature." This indicates that Zhuangzi admits that things possess an inherent order—only this order is natural and internal, not artificial and external.

If we contrast this thought of Zhuangzi with Xunzi’s theory of Rites, we find a possible reconciliation: The best Rites should be those that conform to the "inherent order" of things—Rites are not forceful external constraints but the institutionalization of man’s "inherent order." Master Xunzi’s concept of "returning to the Great Unity" perhaps implicitly suggests this—when Rites reach the state of "Great Unity," the artificial institution merges with the natural order; the institution ceases to be a force against nature and becomes its manifestation.

Section 3 Two Orders: Natural Order vs. Institutional Order

From a broader perspective, the divergence between Daoism and Confucianism can be summarized as a tension between two types of ordering principles:

Daoist Ordering Principle: Natural Order. Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things possess a natural order—the orbit of the sun and moon, the cycle of the four seasons, the laws of growth for all things—none of which require artificial intervention. Human society should also follow this natural order, rather than attempting to replace it with artificial systems. "The Dao follows what is natural" (Dao fa Ziran) (Laozi, Chapter 25)—The Dao takes Nature as its model.

Confucian Ordering Principle: Institutional Order. Human society is different from the natural world; it does not automatically generate order. Human desires, contention, and chaos require artificial institutions (Rites) to resolve them. "The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them"—The Former Kings created Rites and Righteousness to establish order.

This tension between two ordering principles has permeated the entire history of pre-Qin thought and, indeed, the entire history of Chinese thought.

However, upon closer analysis, these two principles are not entirely opposite.

First, the "Natural Order" sought by Daoism is not chaos. On the contrary, it is an order of a higher level—an order more subtle and harmonious than any artificial system. Laozi states:

"Man models himself on Earth; Earth models itself on Heaven; Heaven models itself on the Dao; the Dao models itself on what is natural." (Laozi, Chapter 25)

"The Dao models itself on what is natural" (Dao fa Ziran)—the Dao takes Nature as its law. Here, "Natural" (Ziran) does not mean "random" or "chaotic" but "naturally so"—an order that presents itself without artificial intervention.

Second, the "Institutional Order" constructed by Confucianism is not detached from Nature. Master Xunzi clearly states: "This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires." This "mutual support and growth" is in fact a "Nature-like" order—it simulates the natural law of ebb and flow, balance between Yin and Yang in Heaven and Earth.

Therefore, the "Natural Order" of Daoism and the "Institutional Order" of Confucianism may not be two entirely different orders but two different facets of the same order—the "Natural Order" is its substance, and the "Institutional Order" is its realization. The best institution (Rites) should be the one closest to the Natural Order—one that maintains social order without harming human nature or violating the Way of Heaven and Earth.

Master Xunzi’s "return to the Great Unity" perhaps implicitly contains this ultimate unification—when Rites reach the state of "Great Unity," the artificial institution merges with the natural order, and the institution ceases to be a constraint upon Nature and becomes its manifestation.

Chapter 9 Deeper Tracing: Sacrifice in Ancient Folklore and the Primordial Ritual

Section 1 The Beginning of Sacrifice and the Germination of Rites

From the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore, the most primordial form of Rites was likely sacrifice—human veneration and supplication to the spirits of Heaven, Earth, and the ancestors.

Li Ji: Li Yun states:

"The beginning of Rites originated in food and drink. When roasting millet and chopping up pigs, using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands, beating drums with grass bundles—even this seemed sufficient to convey their reverence to the spirits of Heaven and Earth."

"Begins in food and drink" (Shi yu yin shi)—The earliest Rites started with food and drink—offering food and drink to Heaven and Earth and ancestral spirits—using the simplest means to express reverence to the divine.

Why sacrifice$7 Because "humans are born with desires"—humans desire food, security, and survival. In antiquity, humans were extremely vulnerable to the forces of Nature—floods, droughts, fierce beasts, and disease could take human lives at any moment. Humans could not guarantee survival by their own power, so they had to appeal for the protection of the spirits of Heaven and Earth. The ritualization of this act of appeal is the origin of sacrificial Rites.

In the context of ancient sacrifice, Master Xunzi’s "desire is present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek" takes on a more concrete meaning: Human desire for survival (yu) cannot be fully satisfied by oneself (bu de), thus one must appeal to supernatural powers (bu neng wu qiu). This appeal required a certain method and norm—the earliest "measure and boundary"—when to sacrifice, what to use, and in what manner.

The sacrifices recorded in the Shang Shu, Yao Dian by Emperor Yao exhibit clear "measure and boundary":

"In the second month of the year, he made an eastern tour of inspection, proceeding to Mount Tai, where he performed the Chai sacrifice. He observed the rites to the mountains and rivers. Then he paid his respects to the Eastern Queen. He harmonized the months, days, and the standard measures, weights, and lengths."

When Emperor Yao took the throne, he first sacrificed to the High God ("observed the rites to the mountains and rivers"), then to the Six Ancestors, then to the mountain and river spirits, and finally to all the spirits. This series of sacrifices, while far more complex than the primitive era, was relatively simple compared to later elaborate ceremonies—it was in the transition phase from "simplicity" (zhuo) to "culture" (wen).

Section 2 Spirits of Heaven and Earth and the Sacredness of Rites

In ancient belief, Rites were not only human order but also the sacred laws between Heaven and Earth. The sacredness of Rites derived from human reverence for the spirits of Heaven and Earth.

The Guo Yu, Chu Yu Xia records a crucial dialogue—Guan Shefu discusses the "Severing of Earth and Heaven" (Jue Di Tian Tong):

"In ancient times, the people and the spirits did not mix. When the people’s spirits were not distracted, and they could maintain sincerity and correctness... the enlightened spirits would descend; among men, males were called Xie (shamans), and females Wu (sorceresses). ... When Shao Hao declined, the Nine Li confused virtue, and people and spirits mixed indiscriminately, unable to be distinguished. Everyone performed sacrifices, every household had its shaman, without a central authority. The people were depleted of proper offerings and did not know their blessings. Offerings were without measure, and people and spirits shared the same place. People profaned the sacred oaths, lacking solemn authority. When the spirits were too familiar with men, they did not reject their actions. Auspicious births did not descend, and there was nothing to offer; disasters repeatedly arrived, and the vital force was not exhausted. Zhuanxu received this mandate, and ordered the Southern Chief (Zhong) to oversee Heaven to be in charge of the spirits, and ordered the Fire Chief (Li) to oversee Earth to be in charge of the people, commanding them to return to the former constants, without trespassing upon each other’s domain. This is called the severing of Earth and Heaven."

The core meaning of "Severing of Earth and Heaven" is: the authority to communicate with spirits was concentrated in specialized shamans, rather than allowing everyone to sacrifice arbitrarily. This is the earliest practice of "measure and boundary" in the religious sphere—who was qualified to sacrifice and how to sacrifice were clearly stipulated.

What was the consequence of "Offerings were without measure" (Zheng xiang wu du)$8 "Disasters repeatedly arrived, and the vital force was not exhausted" (Huo zai jian zhen, mo jin qi qi)—Calamities came one after another, and the vital force was never fully expended. This logic is entirely consistent with Xunzi’s "when seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided; contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution"—only Xunzi argues this from the social level, whereas the "Severing of Earth and Heaven" narrative argues it from the religious level.

This record reveals the source of the sacredness of Rites: Rites were initially the laws of communication between humans and the spirits of Heaven and Earth. Because Rites involved the divine realm, they possessed supreme sacredness—to violate Rites was to offend Heaven and Earth, with dire consequences.

Although Master Xunzi shows a tendency toward "demystification" in his Tian Lun (Heaven does not exist for Yao, nor perish for Jie), he still respects the sacredness of Rites. In Li Lun, he details the various observances of sacrificial rites and emphasizes that the purpose of sacrifice is "repaying the source and returning to the beginning"—repaying the grace of Heaven, Earth, and ancestors. This spirit of "repaying the source" originates from the ancient reverence for the spirits of Heaven and Earth.

Section 3 The Prototype of Order: From Heaven/Earth to the Human Realm

In ancient mythology, there was a natural order between Heaven and Earth—the sun and moon had their paths of movement, the four seasons had their rhythm of succession, and all things had their laws of growth. This natural order was the prototype for the ritualistic order in the human world.

The Shang Shu, Yao Dian records Emperor Yao "respectfully transmitting the correct times" (jing shou ren shi)—respectfully informing the people of the celestial times:

"He then commanded Xi and He, to diligently observe the vast Heaven, to record the movements of the sun, moon, and stars, and respectfully transmit the times to the people. He assigned Xi Zhong to the eastern region, called Yang Valley. Respectfully attending the rising sun, he harmonized the eastern labors... At midday, the star Niao (The Bird) marked mid-spring. The people began to clear the fields, and birds and beasts multiplied... He assigned Xi Shu to the southern region... At noon, the star Huo (Fire) marked midsummer. The people followed suit, and birds and beasts shed their winter coats... He assigned He Zhong to the western region, called Mei Valley. Respectfully seeing the sun set, he harmonized the western harvest... At midnight, the star Xu (The Empty) marked mid-autumn. The people were at ease, and birds and beasts grew fine fur... He assigned He Shu to the northern region, called You Du. He arranged the setting sun in the north... The shortest day marked midwinter. The people sheltered, and birds and beasts grew thick fur."

Emperor Yao commanded the Xi and He clans to manage the astronomy and agricultural timing of the four regions (East, South, West, North) respectively. Each region had clear astronomical markers (midday, longest day, midnight, shortest day), specific constellations (Bird, Fire, Empty, Pleiades), and definite seasonal characteristics (mid-spring, midsummer, mid-autumn, midwinter)—everything was perfectly ordered.

This astronomical and calendrical order was the prototype for human ritual order. Heaven has the laws governing the movement of the sun, moon, and stars; the human world has the behavioral norms of Rites and Righteousness. The order of Heaven is natural—it requires no human intervention; the order of the human world is artificial—it requires "the Former Kings to establish Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them." But the artificial order takes the natural order as its model—"emulating the clarity of Heaven, adapting to the nature of Earth."

The I Ching, Xi Ci Zhuan states:

"In ancient times, when the lord Bao Xi ruled the world, he looked up to observe the celestial patterns, and looked down to observe the laws of Earth. He observed the markings of birds and beasts and the suitability of the Earth. He took things near him as examples and things far from him as models. From this, he first created the Eight Trigrams, to connect with the virtue of the spirits and to classify the emotions of the myriad things."

Lord Fuxi observed the patterns of Heaven and Earth, observed the markings of birds and beasts, and took things near and far as models, thereby creating the Eight Trigrams—to connect with the virtue of the spirits and classify the emotions of the myriad things. The Eight Trigrams can be seen as the most primitive form of "measure and boundary"—they divide Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things into eight basic types, each with its specific nature and law. This spirit of classification and norm-setting is the source of the spirit of Rites.

Section 4 Rites in Daily Folk Rituals: The Practical Application of Order

Besides the grand sacrificial Rites, the daily folk activities of antiquity also contained rich concepts of Rites.

There are Rites for eating and drinking—what food different people eat, what vessels to use, and in what order. Li Ji: Qu Li Shang states:

"When eating together, do not eat until full; when sharing food, do not wet your hand to take more."

These seemingly trivial rules are actually norms regulating human eating behavior—ensuring "desires do not exhaust material things" (not wasting due to greed) and "material things are not subjugated by desires" (not compromising hygiene due to greed).

There are Rites for meeting—how to bow, how to address others, how to be seated. The Analects, Xiang Dang chapter details Confucius's conduct in different settings:

"When among villagers, Confucius was respectful and reserved, as if unable to speak. When in the ancestral temple or the court, he spoke fluently, yet with utmost caution."

In the village, Confucius was humble and gentle, seemingly taciturn; in the ancestral temple and the court, he spoke clearly, but with extreme caution. Different occasions require different modes of conduct—this is the application of "using flourishing and reduction as the key principle" (yi long sha wei yao) in daily life.

There are Rites for marriage and mourning—how to marry and how to mourn. The Book of Songs contains many descriptions of marriage and mourning rites. For example, Book of Songs, Zhou Nan, Tao Yao:

"The peach tree is young and tender, its blossoms brilliant red. This young woman is going to her husband, to suit his household."

This wedding song underlies an entire set of marriage ceremonies—proposing marriage, inquiring about the name, presenting the auspicious signs, sending gifts, setting the date, and personally fetching the bride—each step has its specific regulation and meaning.

These Rites in daily customs are the concrete expression of Master Xunzi’s "nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands." Humans desire food and drink; the Rites of eating allow them to satisfy this desire in a civilized and orderly manner. Humans desire marriage; the Rites of marriage allow them to realize this wish in a solemn and harmonious manner. Rites are not a denial of desire but the civilization of desire.

Chapter 10 Deep Inquiry: Several Core Philosophical Implications of Rites

Section 1 The Legitimacy of Desire

Reading these four passages from Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, the first fundamental philosophical problem we encounter is: Does desire possess legitimacy$9

In Master Xunzi’s system, the answer is clear: Desire possesses legitimacy. "Humans are born with desires" is an undeniable fact. The task of Rites is not to eliminate desire but "to nurture human desires and satisfy human demands"—to guide and fulfill them.

However, this stance faces challenges from different directions:

The challenge from Daoism: Desire is the source of suffering. Laozi states: "There is no greater crime than to desire to have more than one deserves; there is no greater misfortune than not knowing when one has had enough." (Laozi, Chapter 46). If desire is the source of chaos, why "nurture" it rather than "extinguish" it$10

The challenge from Mohism: Master Mozi advocates "restraining expenditure" (jie yong) and "opposing Music" (fei yue)—drastically saving expenses and opposing music for entertainment. Although this position does not completely deny desire, it compresses the satisfaction of desire to a bare minimum. Master Xunzi specifically criticizes the Mohist stance of "opposing Music" in the Yue Lun (Discourse on Music):

"Thus, Music is joy (le). The superior man finds joy in his Dao; the lesser man finds joy in his desires. If one regulates desires with the Dao, there is joy without disorder; if one forgets the Dao through desire, there is confusion without joy. Thus, Music is the means by which joy is guided."

Music (Yue) is joy (Le). The superior man finds joy in the Dao, while the lesser man finds joy in desire. If one regulates desire with the Dao, there is joy without disorder; if one forgets the Dao through desire, there is confusion without joy. Therefore, the function of Music is to guide joy—"regulating desires with the Dao" (yi Dao zhi yu)—rather than eliminating joy ("opposing Music").

This argument by Master Xunzi clearly demonstrates his position on the legitimacy of desire: Desire itself is legitimate, and joy itself is legitimate. The issue is not the existence of desire or joy, but how to guide desire and how to regulate joy—"regulating desires with the Dao" (yi Dao zhi yu)—this is the function of Rites.

On a deeper philosophical level, Xunzi’s affirmation of the legitimacy of desire implies an affirmation of the sensibility of human existence (senses, emotion, desire). Man is not only a rational being but also a sentient one—flesh and blood, with emotions and desires. The task of Rites is not to suppress human sensibility but to incorporate human sensibility into a rational order—so that it is both satisfied and prevented from overflowing.

This affirmation of the legitimacy of the sentient existence is an important tradition in pre-Qin Confucianism. The Book of Songs itself is an expression of emotion—"The Shi Odes are where the Zhi (intentions/aims) go; when in the heart, they are intentions; when expressed in words, they are Odes" (a quote from the later Mao Shi Xu, but the idea predates the Qin). Confucius's evaluation of the Book of Songs as "without depravity" (si wu xie) suggests that he believed the various emotions expressed in the Odes (including love, homesickness, resentment) were legitimate and not depraved.

Section 2 The Eternal Tension between Culture (Wen) and Substance (Zhi)

The second core philosophical problem in Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites is the eternal tension between "culture" (wen) and "substance" (zhi) (or "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen)).

Throughout pre-Qin intellectual history, the relationship between wen and zhi has been a central issue. Confucius proposed the ideal of "well-blended culture and substance" (wen zhi bin bin); Master Xunzi further deepened this ideal with "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin). But the ideal remains the ideal—in reality, the tension between wen and zhi always exists.

Why is this tension "eternal"$11 Because wen and zhi separately represent two irreducible dimensions of human existence—naturalness (zhi) and sociality (wen). Man is both a natural being (with natural desires and emotions) and a social being (with social roles and norms). Between these two dimensions, there will always be some degree of tension—the spontaneous impulse of nature and the normative requirements of society can never be perfectly aligned.

Xunzi’s theory of Rites can be seen as a response to this eternal tension. He does not attempt to eliminate this tension (which is impossible) but attempts to manage and regulate it—by flexibly employing flourishing (long), reduction (sha), and the middle course (zhong liu), the tension is kept within controllable limits. In solemn occasions, "culture" dominates (elaborate culture/principle, restrained emotion/utility); in simple occasions, "emotion" dominates (sparse culture/principle, abundant emotion/utility); in general occasions, the two operate concurrently (culture/principle and emotion/utility serve as interior/exterior, manifestation/obscurity, operating concurrently and intermingled).

This flexible strategy is more practical and effective than any one-sided position (such as Daoist "abandoning culture for substance" or Legalist "using punishment instead of Rites").

Section 3 The Highest Realm of the Sage: Implicitly Grasping Order

Master Xunzi’s description of the Sage's realm—"moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly" (fang huang zhou xie, qu de qi ci xu)—is the highest attainment in the practice of Rites, and the highest realm of self-cultivation.

The core characteristic of this realm is "implicitly grasping the order" (qu de qi ci xu)—every detail is just right. This implies:

First, the Sage has a thorough understanding of all levels of Rites (flourishing, reduction, middle course)—he not only knows when to flourish, when to reduce, and when to remain in the middle, but also precisely how much to flourish, how much to reduce, and where to settle in the middle.

Second, the Sage can flexibly respond to all situations in practicing Rites—he does not mechanically execute rules but makes appropriate judgments and actions based on the specific context. This flexibility is not arbitrariness—it is built upon a profound understanding of the principles of Rites.

Third, the Sage’s practice of Rites is natural and spontaneous—it requires no deliberate thought or effort; everything conforms to Rites naturally, like an instinct. This is the state of "following what my heart desired without overstepping what was right."

This realm is precious because it resolves the tension between "culture" (wen) and "substance" (zhi)—for the Sage, wen is zhi, and zhi is wen; the two are completely unified. The Sage’s expression of emotion is itself the most perfect form, and the most perfect form inherently carries the most genuine emotion.

Master Kong's lifelong pursuit was likely this very realm. He began with "setting his heart on learning at fifteen," went through "standing firm at thirty," "no doubts at forty," "knowing the Mandate of Heaven at fifty," and "his ear attuned at sixty," finally reaching "following what my heart desired without overstepping what was right" at seventy—this is the complete embodiment of "implicitly grasping the order" in personal life.

Section 4 The Dynamism and Adaptability of Rites

Reading through these four passages in Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, one theme that runs throughout is: Rites are dynamic, not static.

"The two support each other and grow"—Desire and material things grow together. "Begins with simplicity, is completed in culture, and ends in joyful calibration"—Rites have a process of arising and developing. "Flourishing, reduction, middle course"—Rites have different forms depending on the situation. "Steps, gallops, swift flights"—The practice of Rites has different rhythms and intensities.

This dynamism implies that Rites are not a set of rigid dogmas but a living organism—capable of adapting to different situations, different eras, and different groups of people.

Master Kong’s discussion of "addition and subtraction" (sun yi) in Rites precisely emphasizes this adaptability:

"The Yin Shang inherited the Rites of the Xia, the additions and subtractions can be known; the Zhou inherited the Rites of the Yin, the additions and subtractions can be known."

Rites undergo constant "addition and subtraction" throughout history to adapt to new needs. But the unchanging core of this "addition and subtraction" is "honoring the root" (respecting the fundamental spirit). When the fundamental spirit remains unchanged, the specific forms can be adjusted according to the times—this is the unity of dynamism and stability in Rites.

Master Xunzi criticizes those who are rigidly conservative and fail to adapt in the Fei Shi Er Zi (Against the Twelve Masters) chapter:

"They do not know the method of establishing a state and governing the world, favoring great frugality and neglecting differentiation of grades."

This criticism targets those who do not understand the dynamism and adaptability of Rites.

Section 5 The Great Unity as Ultimate Pursuit: Harmonious Wholeness Beyond Opposition

Master Xunzi mentions the "Great Unity" (Da Yi) twice—"When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity" and "the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity." This "Great Unity" can be considered the ultimate pursuit in Master Xunzi’s theory of Rites.

The "Great Unity" transcends all oppositions—the opposition between root and utility, emotion and culture, flourishing and reduction, individual and society, artifice and nature. In the state of "Great Unity," all these oppositions are resolved, and everything returns to harmony.

This pursuit of "harmonious wholeness beyond opposition" is not only Xunzi’s personal pursuit but also a common pursuit throughout pre-Qin thought. Confucianism idealizes the "Doctrine of the Mean" ("When the Mean and Harmony are carried to their utmost extent, Heaven and Earth assume their correct positions, and the myriad things are nourished"); Daoism seeks refuge in the "Dao" ("The Dao produced One; One produced Two; Two produced Three; Three produced the myriad things"); the I Ching regards the "Taiji" (Supreme Ultimate) as the root ("The Yi has the Taiji; this produced the Two Primes"). These different expressions all point in the same direction—transcending opposition and returning to unity.

Master Xunzi’s "Great Unity" is the concrete manifestation of this common pursuit in the realm of ritual theory. It tells us: The highest state of Rites is not a specific form (whether flourishing or reduction) but a state of holistic harmony that transcends all specific forms—in this harmony, all opposition is resolved, all tension is reconciled, and man merges with Heaven and Earth.

Chapter 11 General Discussion: Rites as the Way—Connecting Human Desire to the Way of Heaven

Section 1 The Inner Logic of the Four Passages of the Rites Discourse

Reviewing these four passages from Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, we can trace a clear thread of internal logic:

Passage 1—Theory of Origin: Answers the fundamental question, "Where do Rites originate$1" Starting from human desire, through the vicious cycle of contention, chaos, and destitution, to the establishment of Rites by the Former Kings, nurturing desire, satisfying demands, and the mutual support and growth of desire and material things—it demonstrates the logical process of Rites from non-existence to existence.

Passage 2—Theory of Structure: Elucidates the internal structure of Rites—the root (ben, corresponding to wen) and utility (yong, corresponding to li)—and the highest state of their unification—the Great Unity (Da Yi, or Great Flourishing, Da Long).

Passage 3—Theory of Process and Tier: Discusses the developmental process of Rites (zhuo $\rightarrow$ wen $\rightarrow$ yue jiao) and their stratification (utmost perfection, next degree, lowest degree).

Passage 4—Theory of Elements and Application: Summarizes the four essential elements of Rites (utility, culture, differentiation, key principle) and the three operational modes (flourishing, reduction, middle course), leading to the description of the cultivation of the superior man and the Sage, and concluding with the Four Virtues of Rites (Depth, Greatness, Height, Brightness).