An Interpretation and Inquiry into the Chapters on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" and "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself" in the Doctrine of the Mean: "Authenticity and Spirit—The Metaphysical Foundation of the Way of the Mean"

Author: Xuanji Editorial Department

Introduction

The Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean), traditionally attributed to Zisi, stands as a nexus in pre-Qin Confucian thought, inheriting the teachings of Confucius above and initiating the Way of Mencius below. Though its language is concise, its meaning is profound, encompassing Heaven and Earth, connecting with ghosts and spirits, permeating all things, and perfecting human relationships. It proceeds from the subtle to the manifest, from the authentic to the bright, layer upon layer, arriving at the ultimate peak of the Dao-substance (Dao Ti).

What we discuss here are two of the most essential passages in the Zhongyong. The first is: "The Master said: 'The virtue of ghosts and spirits! How abundant it is! We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them; yet they integrate with all things and cannot be left out. They cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices, overflowing as if above them, as if beside them. The Book of Odes says: ‘The arrival of the spirits, how cannot it be fathomed! Much less can they be scorned!’ Indeed, the subtle and the manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!'"

The second is: "That which is authentic completes itself, and the Dao guides itself. Authenticity is the beginning and end of things; without authenticity, there are no things. Therefore, the exemplary person values authenticity above all. Authenticity does not merely complete oneself; it is that by which things are completed. To complete oneself is benevolence (Ren); to complete things is wisdom (Zhi). It is the virtue of the nature, the Way that unites the inner and the outer, and therefore it is appropriately applied at all times. Thus, the utmost authenticity is ceaseless. If ceaseless, it is long-lasting; if long-lasting, it yields verification; if it yields verification, it is far-reaching; if far-reaching, it is broad and profound; if broad and profound, it is lofty and bright. Broad and profound is what carries things; lofty and bright is what covers things; long-lasting is what completes things. Broad and profound corresponds to Earth; lofty and bright corresponds to Heaven; long-lasting is boundless. Such a one is manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, and accomplishes without acting."

These two passages—one discusses the virtue of ghosts and spirits to reveal the inextinguishable nature of authenticity, and the other discusses the self-completion of the authentic substance to exhaust the transforming power of Heaven and Earth—are interconnected and mutually illuminating, truly constituting the marrow of the entire Zhongyong.

Why do we say this$1 The Zhongyong begins by stating: "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature (Xing); following this nature is what we call the Way (Dao); cultivating this Way is what we call education (Jiao)." These three sentences move from Heaven to man, from nature to the Way, and from the Way to education, already prefiguring the foundation of the authentic substance. The chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" then launches from the subtle and imperceptible ghosts and spirits to put forth the main thesis of "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity," providing a crucial starting point for revealing the metaphysical Dao-substance. Subsequently, the chapter "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself" directly unfolds the inherent meaning of the authentic substance, speaking of its self-completion, its completion of things, its correspondence with Heaven and Earth, its boundlessness and ceaselessness, pushing the Way of the Zhongyong to its highest realm.

Therefore, interpreting these two passages is not merely a matter of lexicography; it is essential for understanding the pre-Qin Confucian views on the Dao-substance, ghosts and spirits, Heaven and man, and authenticity-illumination (Cheng-Ming).

This article approaches the subject from the perspectives of the pre-Qin era and high antiquity, drawing broadly from pre-Qin classics, using "ghosts and spirits" and "authenticity" as two main threads to penetrate their meaning layer by layer. The essay is divided into three parts: Part One discusses "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits"; Part Two discusses "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself"; and Part Three discusses the relationship between the two, revealing the complete picture of the metaphysical thought in the Zhongyong.

Part One: The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits—The Manifestation of the Dao-Substance within the Subtle

Chapter 1: Etymological Investigation of the Terms "Ghosts and Spirits"

Section 1: The Ancient Semantics of "Gui" and "Shen"

To understand the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" (Gui Shen Zhi De), one must first clarify the meaning of Gui Shen. In pre-Qin texts, the meanings of Gui (ghost) and Shen (spirit) are extremely broad and their usage complex. Without careful differentiation, later vulgar interpretations may intrude, causing us to miss the original intention of the pre-Qin thinkers.

The character Gui (鬼) already appears in oracle bone inscriptions. Although the Shuowen Jiezi is a later compilation, Xu Shen often relied on ancient pre-Qin traditions. It states: "Gui is where human spirits return to." This definition of "return" (gui) carries profound implications. The Book of Rites: Meaning of Sacrifices (Liji: Jiyi) states: "All living things must die; when they die, they must return to the earth; this is what is called Gui." The Erya: Shi Xun also contains this meaning. The original meaning of Gui referred to the return place of the jing (essence/spirit) after death. Zichan's discussion on ghosts and spirits in the Zuo Zhuan: Zhao Gong Seventh Year is extremely concise:

"When a person begins to materialize, it is called Po (魄, the corporeal soul); after Po is generated, the Yang aspect is called Hun (魂, the spiritual soul). When one makes extensive use of essence (jing), the Hun and Po become strong. Thus, there is refined essence (Jing Shuang) that reaches the spiritual brightness (Shen Ming). When a common man or woman dies violently, their Hun and Po can still attach themselves to people, becoming perverse and fierce."

Zichan's discourse is one of the most important documents concerning the concept of Gui Shen in the Spring and Autumn period. By explaining Gui Shen through Hun and Po, and differentiating Po and Hun based on Yin-Yang, it is clear that in the Spring and Autumn period, the original meaning of Gui was related to the transformation of human essence (Jing). When a person dies, the Yin aspect sinks downward, called Gui; the Yang aspect rises upward, called Shen. This ebb and flow of Yin-Yang essence constitutes the basic meaning of Gui Shen.

The character Shen (神) is even more complex. Oracle bones show early forms of Di (God) and nascent forms of Shen. In high antiquity, Shen was broadly categorized into three types: celestial spirits (Tianshen), terrestrial deities (Di Shi), and human ghosts (Rengui). The Rites of Zhou: Spring Official: Grand Astrologer (Zhouli: Chunguan: Dazongbo) states:

"The duty of the Grand Astrologer is to manage the rites of the celestial spirits (Tianshen), human ghosts (Rengui), and terrestrial deities (Di Shi) of the state."

It further states:

"With the Solemn Sacrifice (Xian Si), one sacrifices to the August Heaven Above (Hao Tian Shang Di); with the Fire Offering (Shi Chai), one sacrifices to the Sun, Moon, and Stars; with the Firing Offering (Yuan Liao), one sacrifices to the Central Spirit (Si Zhong), the Spirit of Destiny (Si Ming), the Master of Wind (Feng Shi), and the Master of Rain (Yu Shi). With the Blood Sacrifice (Xie Ji), one sacrifices to the Altars of Soil and Grain (She Ji) and the Five Deities of the Crossroads (Wu Si), the Five Sacred Mountains (Wu Yue); with the Rinsing Sacrifice (Li Shen), one sacrifices to the spirits of mountains, forests, rivers, and lakes; with the Poignant Offering (Yan Gu), one sacrifices to the spirits of the Four Quarters and all creatures. With the Final Offering (Si Xian Lu), one presents libations to the former kings; with the Feeding Offering (Kui Shi), one offers food to the former kings; with the Spring Sacrifice (Ci Chun), one offers to the former kings."

These three categories have distinct rites: celestial spirits receive Xian Si, terrestrial deities receive blood sacrifices, and human ghosts receive the final offerings (Si Xian Lu and Kui Shi). Yet, they are all collectively named Gui Shen.

Returning to the Zhongyong's "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits," what exactly do these Gui Shen refer to$2 Are they the souls after death$3 The deities of Heaven and Earth$4 Or the coming and going of Yin-Yang essence$5 This is crucial for interpreting the chapter.

Section 2: Divergent Views on "Ghosts and Spirits" Among Pre-Qin Schools

The various pre-Qin schools held different primary views on Gui Shen.

Confucius's Stance:

"He who is devoted to the people's righteousness and respects ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance, one can call knowledgeable." (Analects, Yong Ye)

"The Master rarely spoke of strange occurrences, feats of strength, rebellion, or spiritual beings." (Analects, Shu Er)

When asked by Jilu about serving ghosts and spirits, the Master said: "If you are not yet able to serve men, how can you serve ghosts and spirits$6" Jilu asked about death. The Master replied: "If you do not yet understand life, how can you understand death$7" (Analects, Xian Jin)

"When attending a sacrifice, act as if the spirit is present; when sacrificing to spirits, act as if they are present. The Master said: 'If I do not participate in the sacrifice, it is as if I did not sacrifice.'" (Analects, Ba Yi)

From these passages, we see several characteristics of Confucius's view: First, he did not deny the existence of Gui Shen, but treated them with "respect" (Jing). Second, he rarely discussed their matters—what he "rarely spoke of" (Zi bu yu) was not a denial of their existence, but rather that their affairs were not the core of his moral instruction. Third, he emphasized the attitude of sincerity, "as if present" (Ji Ru Zai), making subjective sincerity the substance of sacrifice. Fourth, he connected spiritual matters with human affairs, never discussing them in isolation from human conduct.

This attitude forms the basis for the Zhongyong's chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." The Zhongyong does not debate their existence but reveals their function as "Virtue" (De). What is De$8 It means "gain" or "efficacy." "The virtue of ghosts and spirits" refers to the efficacy, the functional operation, or the moral meaning manifested by ghosts and spirits. This is a further development of Confucius's spirit of "as if present."

Mozi's Stance:

Mozi strongly advocated for "Clarity on Ghosts" (Ming Gui). In the Mozi: Clarity on Ghosts (Part 2):

"The sage kings of antiquity certainly relied on ghosts and spirits in their governance; their dedication to ghosts and spirits was profound. Fearing that later descendants might not understand, they inscribed it on bamboo and silk, passing it on to future generations. Fearing that it might rot away and be lost, they carved it on vessels and inscribed it on metal and stone to give it weight."

Mozi's argument centers on clarifying the "Will of Heaven" (Tian Zhi). Ghosts and spirits have the ability to reward the good and punish the tyrannical—this is the core of Mozi's "Clarity on Ghosts." He cited historical examples, such as Du Bo shooting King Xuan of Zhou, to prove that spirits could retaliate. This contrasts sharply with the aims of Confucian discussion on Gui Shen.

Laozi's Stance:

"When the Dao governs the world, its ghosts do not cause uncanny effects (Shen). It is not that their ghosts do not have spiritual power, but that their power does not harm people. It is not that their power does not harm people, but that the sage does not harm people either. Since neither harms the other, their virtues mutually converge." (Laozi, Chapter 60)

Laozi incorporates ghosts and spirits under the dominion of the Dao. When the world is governed by the Dao, ghosts and spirits remain in their proper places and do not interfere. The Shen in "do not cause uncanny effects" (Bu Shen) means miraculous or strange phenomena, not a denial of their existence; rather, it means that under the Dao's embrace, ghosts and spirits do not cause harm through monstrosity. This resonates subtly with the Zhongyong's discussion of Gui Shen in terms of De.

Zhuangzi's Stance:

Zhuangzi describes the realm of the "True Person" (Zhenren) by saying: "The True People of antiquity did not oppose scarcity, nor did they press for success, nor did they deliberate on strategy... When they slept, they did not dream; when they awoke, they had no worries." He also states: "Death and life are decreed; they are like the constant cycle of night and day—this is Heaven." Zhuangzi rarely discusses the existence of Gui Shen; instead, he sees life and death as the coalescence and dispersal of Qi (vital energy). Zhuangzi, Zhi Bei You states:

"Human life is the coalescence of Qi. When coalesced, it is life; when dispersed, it is death. If death and life are merely transformations, what is there to fear! Thus, the ten thousand things are one."

This theory of Qi coalescence and dispersal aligns with Zichan's theory of Hun and Po. The difference is that Zichan retained the specific terminology of Gui Shen, whereas Zhuangzi directly subsumed them under the unitary concept of Qi.

The Commentary on the I Ching (Yizhuan) Stance:

"Refined essence (Jing Qi) forms things; wandering spirit (You Hun) becomes change. Therefore, we know the dispositions of ghosts and spirits." (I Ching, Appendix III)

"That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit (Shen)." (I Ching, Appendix III)

These two lines are highly significant. "Refined essence forms things" means the myriad things are formed by the condensation of Yin-Yang essence. "Wandering spirit becomes change" refers to the dispersal and transformation of the Yang aspect (the Hun). The "dispositions of ghosts and spirits" do not refer to the coming and going of concrete entities, but to the ebb and flow of Yin-Yang essence—this is the actual reality (Qing Zhuang) of Gui Shen.

"That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit" (Shen). Here, Shen describes the marvel of Yin-Yang transformation, meaning something beyond intellectual measure. The Appendix III further states: "Spirit has no location, and the Yi has no form." Having no location means it cannot be fixed to a specific place; having no form means it cannot be grasped conceptually. This aligns perfectly with the Zhongyong's "We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them."

Furthermore, the Appendix IV states: "When Yin and Yang combine their virtue, rigidity and flexibility acquire form, thereby embodying the patterns of Heaven and Earth, and connecting with the virtue of the spiritual bright beings (Shen Ming Zhi De)." These four characters directly echo the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" (Gui Shen Zhi De) in the Zhongyong. Thus, the Zhongyong's discussion of Gui Shen emerges from the same intellectual system as the Yizhuan.

Synthesizing the views of the pre-Qin thinkers, the concept of Gui Shen had at least three layers of meaning:

First Layer: Personified spirits—the Celestial Lord, ancestors, and deities of mountains and rivers. This ancient faith is frequently seen in the Book of Odes and the Book of Documents.

Second Layer: Functional spirits—the ebb and flow of Yin-Yang essence. This is the rational interpretation offered by pre-Qin philosophers, held by Zichan, the Yizhuan, and Zhuangzi.

Third Layer: Existential/Boundary spirits—the subtle manifestation of the Dao-substance, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity. This is the unique contribution of the Zhongyong.

The Zhongyong's discourse on Gui Shen integrates all three layers, converging on the third. It does not deny the concrete spirits in sacrifice ("They cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices"), nor does it reject the interpretation based on the flow of Qi ("We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them; yet they integrate with all things and cannot be left out"), but ultimately reduces the meaning of Gui Shen to "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity"—a more fundamental metaphysical proposition.

Section 3: Why does the Zhongyong introduce the discussion of "Ghosts and Spirits"$9

We must now ask a crucial question: Since the Zhongyong is about the "Way of the Mean," why dedicate a chapter to ghosts and spirits$10 What is the relationship between the concept of Gui Shen and the Way of the Mean$11

The answer lies in the structure of the entire Zhongyong.

The text begins by stating, "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature (Xing)," referring to the inherent nature bestowed by the heavenly Dao. It then proceeds, "following this nature is what we call the Way (Dao)," the unfolding of that nature. Finally, "cultivating this Way is what we call education (Jiao)," referring to human effort.

However, the "Way" (Dao) is something that "cannot be left for a moment; if it could be left, it would not be the Dao." Although this Way is inseparable from daily human use, its substance is extremely subtle and remote, beyond the reach of eyes and ears. How can we prove the actual existence of this Way$12 How can we prove that "cannot be left for a moment" is not empty talk$13

The Zhongyong's strategy is to use ghosts and spirits as an example.

Ghosts and spirits are subtle: we look but do not see, listen but do not hear. Yet, they "integrate with all things and cannot be left out," causing all under Heaven to purify themselves and don solemn robes to receive sacrifices—this is their manifestation. From the subtle to the manifest, "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!" The Dao-substance is likewise. You cannot see it or hear it, but it is everywhere and always present, functioning within all things and admitting no omission.

Therefore, the core logical argument of the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" chapter is:

By means of the "subtle yet manifest" nature of Gui Shen, it analogizes and proves the "subtle yet manifest" nature of the Dao-substance, thereby leading to the proposition that "authenticity cannot be concealed."

This is why the Zhongyong discusses Gui Shen. It is not engaging in theology or religious studies, but offering a metaphysical argument. Ghosts and spirits serve merely as an illustration, a passage, a bridge, through which the Zhongyong guides the reader toward the ontology of "Authenticity" (Cheng).

This argumentative strategy is not unique in pre-Qin thought. The Yizhuan also uses Gui Shen as an entry point for understanding the Dao of Yin-Yang. The Yizhuan states that "Refined essence forms things, wandering spirit becomes change, therefore we know the dispositions of ghosts and spirits," and then, "If one is similar to Heaven and Earth, one does not deviate. If one understands the totality of the myriad things and thus assists the world with the Dao, one does not transgress. If one travels widely without drifting, delights in Heaven and knows one's fate, one is free from worry. If one settles firmly in benevolence and is sincere, one can love." Its discussion of Gui Shen serves to manifest the Dao of Heaven and Earth.

Chapter 2: "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits! How Abundant It Is!"—A Line-by-Line Exegesis

Section 1: "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits! How Abundant It Is!"

The key to this opening line lies in the word De (Virtue).

The character De has rich meanings in pre-Qin texts. Its original meaning is "to gain" (De). The Guanzi: Heart Methods (Part 1) states: "De is gain. What is gain is what is obtained as such." It also states: "That which is void, subtle, and without form is called the Dao; that which nurtures and transforms the myriad things is called De." Here, Dao and De are juxtaposed: Dao is the substance, De is the function.

The I Ching, Appendix III states: "Making benevolence manifest, storing it in function, stirring the myriad things without sharing the sage's worry—this is the utmost of great virtue and great accomplishment!" It also states: "Abundance of possessions is called great accomplishment; daily renewal is called abundant virtue (Sheng De)."

The Sheng (Abundant) in Sheng De does not mean quantity, but rather fullness, perfection, and immense magnitude. "The virtue of ghosts and spirits! How abundant it is!"—the function, efficacy, and virtue manifested by Gui Shen are so grand and full!

Why is it called "abundant"$14 Because the characteristics described next—looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard, integrating with all things without omission—demonstrate that the virtue of Gui Shen is omnipresent and all-encompassing; its function is maximal. Precisely because they are unseen and unheard, yet everywhere, they are "abundant." If they were concrete objects that could be seen or heard, they would be limited, not abundant.

This meaning closely aligns with Laozi, Chapter 41:

"The Great Square has no corners. The Great Vessel is completed late. The Great Sound is seldom heard. The Great Image has no form. The Dao is hidden and nameless. It is only the Dao that is good at assisting and completing."

The Great Square without corners means the greatest square has no sharp edges. The Great Sound seldom heard means the greatest sound is inaudible. The Great Image has no form means the greatest image lacks shape. The Dao described by Laozi possesses the characteristic of "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard." And "good at assisting and completing" is precisely the meaning of "integrates with all things and cannot be left out."

Thus, the virtue of Gui Shen is "abundant" precisely because it is formless, soundless, yet everywhere. This is an infinite efficacy transcending finite existence.

Section 2: "We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them"

"We look for them and do not see them" (Shi zhi er bu jian); "we listen for them and do not hear them" (Ting zhi er bu wen).

These two phrases state that the virtue of Gui Shen is beyond the reach of the sensory organs.

In pre-Qin texts, "not seen" and "not heard" are often used to describe the ultimate Dao or the most subtle principle.

Laozi, Chapter 14, states:

"Looked at and not seen is called Yi. Listened to and not heard is called Xi. Grasped at and not obtained is called Wei. These three cannot be inquired into further, so they are combined into one. Above, it is not bright; below, it is not dark. It continues endlessly and cannot be named, returning to nothingness. This is called the formless form, the image of nothingness—this is called Obscure. Greet it and its head cannot be seen; follow it and its tail cannot be found."

The "not seen" (Bu jian) and "not heard" (Bu wen) of the Zhongyong are almost identical to those in Laozi. What does this show$15

It shows that both Confucian and Daoist schools shared the same linguistic framework and conceptual structure when describing the "Dao-substance" or the "most subtle fundamental principle." Both believed that ultimate reality transcends sensory experience—it cannot be seen, heard, or touched. However, this does not mean it does not exist—on the contrary, it exists in a more fundamental way.

Yet, while sharing this description, the aims of Confucianism and Daoism differ. Laozi's "not seen" and "not heard" point to the void-like and elusive nature of the Dao as a substance. The Zhongyong's "not seen" and "not heard" point to the subtle magnificence of the "Authentic" substance as it integrates with things. Laozi understands incomparability through the lens of "Nothingness" (Wu), whereas the Zhongyong understands it through the lens of "Authenticity" (Cheng).

Why "not seen" and "not heard"$16 Because Gui Shen (or the Dao-substance, or the Authentic substance) is not a concrete "thing." Anything that can be seen must have a form and color; anything that can be heard must have a sound and resonance. Having form, color, sound, or resonance means it must be finite—if it has this form, it lacks that form; if it has this sound, it lacks that sound. But the virtue of Gui Shen pervades all things without exception. If it could be seen or heard, it would become one thing among the myriad things, thus limited, and no longer "abundant."

The I Ching, Appendix III offers an excellent exposition of this idea:

"One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao; what follows it is good (Shan); what completes it is nature (Xing). The benevolent see it and call it benevolence; the wise see it and call it wisdom. The common people use it daily yet do not know it, hence the Way of the exemplary person is rare."

"The common people use it daily yet do not know it"—this is another way of expressing "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard." People use it every day without knowing because the Dao has no form or sound, and though omnipresent, it does not present itself as any specific object.

The Appendix III also states: "Spirit has no location, and the Yi has no form." Spirit has no fixed location, and the Yi has no fixed form. This "no location" and "no form" is precisely the reason for "not seen" and "not heard."

Section 3: "Yet they integrate with all things and cannot be left out"

This line is critical, serving as the pivot of the entire chapter.

The phrase "integrate with all things" (Ti Wu) requires careful distinction. Here, Ti is used as a verb, meaning "to embody in things," "to inhere within things," or "to take things as its body." Yi means omission or neglect. "Integrate with all things and cannot be left out" (Ti Wu Er Bu Ke Yi)—the virtue of Gui Shen inheres within every single thing, and not one thing is omitted.

Why emphasize "cannot be left out"$17

Because the previous lines stated "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard," which might lead the reader to ask: If it cannot be seen or heard, is it not ethereal and dispensable$18 "Integrate with all things and cannot be left out" is the response to this question—although it cannot be seen or heard, it is not nonexistent; it exists by "integrating with all things," without exception.

The logic here is exquisitely fine:

"Not seen" / "Not heard"—indicates that the virtue of Gui Shen cannot be directly apprehended by the senses (it is not an objectified existence).

"Integrate with all things and cannot be left out"—indicates that the virtue of Gui Shen is inherent in all things, omnipresent (it is not an existence separate from things).

Taken together: The virtue of Gui Shen is neither an object that can be seen and heard (if it were an object, it would be limited), nor is it a nothingness detached from things (if it were nothingness, it would be useless). It is "both transcendent and immanent," "both invisible and omnipresent"—this is the core insight of pre-Qin metaphysics regarding the Dao-substance.

This idea is widely echoed in pre-Qin texts.

Laozi, Chapter 34, states:

"The Great Dao is ubiquitous; it can be on the left or the right. The myriad things rely on it to live and do not refuse; when their task is done, they do not claim credit. It nourishes all things but does not act as master; it is always without desire, yet can be called small. The myriad things return to it but it does not act as master, so it can be called great. Because it never claims greatness for itself, it can achieve greatness."

"The myriad things rely on it to live and do not refuse," "It nourishes all things but does not act as master"—this is the meaning of "integrate with all things and cannot be left out." The Dao inheres in things, nurturing them, without existing in the form of any specific thing.

Zhuangzi, The Equality of Things states: "Where does the Dao hide that it has truth and falsehood$19 Where do words hide that they have right and wrong$20 Where does the Dao go that it does not exist$21 Where do words exist that they cannot be asserted$22" And further: "The Dao never began with boundaries, and words never possessed constant definitions."

"Where does the Dao go that it does not exist$23"—The implication is that the Dao exists everywhere. This is the best commentary on "integrate with all things and cannot be left out."

Zhuangzi, Zhi Bei You contains an excellent dialogue: Dongguo Zi asked Zhuangzi: "Where is this so-called Dao$24" Zhuangzi replied: "It is nowhere that it is not." Dongguo Zi said: "Tell me specifically, so that I can apprehend it." Zhuangzi replied: "It is in the ants." Dongguo Zi: "How low!" Zhuangzi: "It is in the weeds and millet." Dongguo Zi: "How much lower!" Zhuangzi: "It is in tiles and bricks." Dongguo Zi: "How much worse!" Zhuangzi: "It is in excrement and urine." Dongguo Zi could not reply. Zhuangzi said:

"Your question, sir, does not reach the substance. When Zheng Huo asked the market supervisor about the boar's fat, he said, 'The lower it is, the more substantial it seems.' You should realize there is no place where things escape the Dao. The ultimate Dao is like this; grand words are the same. Zhou (All), Bian (Pervasive), Xian (Complete)—these three names have the same reality; their intent is one."

"No place where things escape the Dao" (Wu hu tao wu)—the Dao does not escape any single thing, serving as the perfect footnote to "integrate with all things and cannot be left out." The ultimate Dao is present in ants, weeds, bricks, tiles, and even excrement and urine—the Dao exists in every single thing, regardless of its perceived nobility or baseness.

However, although Zhuangzi shares the concept of "no escape from things" with the Zhongyong's "cannot be left out," their ultimate aims differ. Zhuangzi's "no escape from things" aims to dissolve the distinctions between self and other, right and wrong, noble and base, culminating in the "Equality of Things" (Qi Wu). The Zhongyong's "cannot be left out" aims to manifest the omnipresence of the "Authentic" substance, culminating in "completion" (Cheng).

This subtle difference marks the boundary between Confucian and Daoist thought.

Section 4: "They cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices"

After discussing the subtlety and omnipresence of Gui Shen in the first three lines, this line suddenly shifts to human affairs—all under Heaven purify themselves, clarify their minds, and don solemn robes to receive sacrifices.

This sudden turn is highly significant.

Why shift from "not seen, not heard" to the matter of sacrifice$25

Because the Zhongyong's purpose in discussing Gui Shen is not to establish a doctrine of ghosts and spirits, but to explain "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity." Although the virtue of Gui Shen is imperceptible to sight and hearing, it is capable of eliciting deep awe in all under Heaven, prompting them to purify themselves and don solemn robes to receive sacrifices—this is the best evidence of "subtle made manifest."

Qi (齐) means Zhai (斋, purification/fasting). The Liji: Jì Tǒng states:

"When the time for sacrifice is approaching, the exemplary person undertakes purification (Qi). Purification means making the uneven even; it is causing the unevenness to reach an even state. Therefore, the exemplary person does not undertake purification unless there is a major matter or profound reverence. If one is not purified, one has no restraint towards things, and desires and lusts are unrestrained. When one is about to purify, one restrains evil influences, completely subdues desires and lusts; the ears do not listen to music, the heart does not wander in stray thoughts; one must depend upon the Dao."

"Qi bu qi yi zhi qi zhe ye"—to bring the uneven mind into unity, to cause it to converge in one place. This Qi refers not only to external cleansing but to the unification of the inner mind and will.

Ming (明, clear) means clarity and purity, referring to the mind being clear and untainted by evil filth during the period of purification.

Sheng Fu (盛服, solemn robes) refers to wearing the most respectful attire. The Liji: Jiyi states: "On the day of purification, one reflects on where the departed dwelled, reflects on their laughter and speech, reflects on their intentions and thoughts, reflects on what they enjoyed. After purifying for three days, one truly sees what they purified themselves for." It further states: "On the day of sacrifice, entering the ancestral hall, one senses that they are in their seat. Walking around outside the door, one solemnly hears the sound of their sighs. Listening outside the door, one clearly hears the sound of their sighs."

This practice of purification (Zhai Jie) is precisely the effort to transform the scattered mind of daily life into a state of unified reverence. In this state, the sacrificer seems to truly sense the presence of the Gui Shen. This is the meaning of "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them" mentioned below.

The word Cheng (承, receive/bear) in "to receive the ancestral sacrifices" also carries deep meaning. Cheng means to bear or to respectfully receive. It does not mean man seeks out Gui Shen, but rather that man, with a sincere and reverent heart, receives the descent of the Gui Shen's virtue. This word implies an important relationship: the virtue of Gui Shen actively "integrates with things," while man's response is "reception"—opening oneself with a sincere heart to receive the descent of this subtle virtue.

Why would all under Heaven purify themselves and wear solemn robes to receive sacrifices$26 Why would people feel such deep awe toward Gui Shen that are unseen and unheard$27 This is precisely the power of the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity." Although the virtue of Gui Shen is imperceptible, its "authenticity"—its true, non-artificial fundamental reality—cannot be concealed. It evokes a response deep within the human heart, compelling reverence, awe, and the most pious attitude toward it.

We can reference the words from the Book of Documents: Great Plan of Yu (Shangshu: Da Yu Mo) for comparison:

"The Emperor said: 'Come, Yu! When the floods came, you warned me; you achieved success through sincere effort. Diligent in governance, frugal in the household, not arrogant or boastful—only you are worthy. Because you are not self-satisfied, no one under Heaven vies with you in ability; because you do not boast, no one vies with you in merit. I commend your virtue and praise your great achievements. Heaven's mandate is in your person; you shall ultimately ascend to the highest throne. The hearts of men are precarious; the heart of the Dao is subtle. Be refined and unified; firmly grasp the Mean.'"

"The heart of the Dao is subtle" (Dao Xin Wei Wei)—the heart of the Dao is extremely subtle. But precisely because it is "refined and unified" (Wei Jing Wei Yi), if one perceives it with the utmost sincere and unified heart, one can "firmly grasp the Mean" (Yun Zhi Zhong). This corresponds perfectly to the Zhongyong's discussion: although the virtue of Gui Shen is subtle, when perceived by a sincere heart, it naturally manifests.

The Book of Documents: Jin Teng records Duke Zhou's prayer on behalf of King Wu:

"Duke Zhou stood upon the altar terrace, holding a jade disk and a jade tablet, and addressed the Great King, King Ji, and King Wen."

Duke Zhou faced deceased ancestors—Great King, King Ji, and King Wen. These three are unseen and unheard. Yet, Duke Zhou prayed with utmost sincerity, offering his own body to take on King Wu's illness. The result was that King Wu recovered shortly after. Regardless of the historical veracity of this event, its recording and transmission in pre-Qin literature demonstrate the deep conviction that the utmost sincerity could resonate with Gui Shen.

Section 5: "Overflowing as if above them, as if beside them"

"Yang Yang (洋洋乎)" describes the appearance of flowing and being full. The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Wen Wang states: "King Wen is above, clearly visible in Heaven. Though Zhou is an old state, its mandate is renewed. If Zhou were not manifest, Heaven's mandate would not endure. When King Wen ascended and descended, he was beside the Lord on High."

This line, "When King Wen ascended and descended, he was beside the Lord on High," can be compared with "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them." Although the spirit of King Wen is imperceptible, when the people of Zhou sincerely sacrificed to him, they felt overflowingly as if he were above them and beside them—this is the manifestation of Gui Shen being "as if present."

Note the use of the word "Ru" (如, as if). "As if above them, as if beside them"—it is "as if present," not "actually present." This particle "Ru" precisely echoes the earlier "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard": you truly cannot see or hear them, but after sincere purification, you experience a strong sense of their "as if presence."

Where does this sense of "as if presence" come from$28

It does not come from external sensory stimuli (because they are "not seen," "not heard"), nor does it come from rational inference. It comes from "Authenticity" (Cheng)—from the convergence of the sacrificer's ultimate sincerity and the subtle virtue of Gui Shen.

Confucius's saying in the Analects, Ba Yi: "When attending a sacrifice, act as if the spirit is present; when sacrificing to spirits, act as if they are present"—this is the meaning. "As if present" does not mean "not present," nor does it mean "certainly present"; rather, it is a unique experience that transcends the binary opposition of "present" and "absent." In the state of utmost sincerity, the distinction between "present" and "absent" dissolves, leaving only a unified state filled with awe and resonance.

This state has deep roots in the pre-Qin sacrificial tradition. The Liji: Jiyi states:

"When King Wen sacrificed, he served the dead as if they were living, and thought of the dead as if he did not wish to live. On the anniversary of their death, he mourned with grief, and referred to their names as if seeing them in person. In the utmost loyalty of sacrifice, it was as if seeing what the departed cherished, and having the expression one assumes when seeing a beloved relative. Is this not King Wen$29 The Book of Odes says: 'At dawn I cannot sleep, thinking of two people.' This is King Wen's poem. The day after the sacrifice, unable to sleep at dawn, one feasts and brings it to completion, and then continues to think of them. On the day of sacrifice, joy and sorrow are half and half. Feasting must be joyful, and when completed, there must be sorrow; I see from this the character of King Wen."

"Serving the dead as if they were living"—treating the deceased as if they were alive. This use of "Ru" carries the same meaning as the "Ru" in "as if above them, as if beside them." When King Wen sacrificed to his ancestors, he fully immersed himself with sincerity, causing the boundary between presence and absence to dissolve, and the barrier between death and life to be broken through.

This experience is not superstition or hallucination; it is the ultimate manifestation of the function of "Authenticity" (Cheng). Precisely because the virtue of Gui Shen "integrates with all things and cannot be left out," and because human sincerity is sufficient to resonate with this subtle virtue, there arises the experience of "overflowing as if present."

Section 6: Citing the Odes: "The arrival of the spirits, how cannot it be fathomed! Much less can they be scorned!"

The Zhongyong cites the Book of Odes here as proof. This poem comes from the Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Yi (Da Ya: Yi), which is quite long and serves as a self-admonition by Duke Wu of Wei. One section reads:

"The arrival of the spirits (Shen Zhi Ge Si), how cannot it be fathomed (Bu Ke Du Si)! Much less can they be scorned (Shen Ke She Si)!"

Ge (格) means arrival or coming. Si (思) is an exclamatory particle, like Zhi or Xi. Du (度) means to estimate or fathom. Shen (矧) means moreover or much less. She (射) means disgust or scornful negligence (also interpreted as Yi, meaning weariness or disrespect).

The entire line means: The descent of the spirits cannot be fathomed! Much less can one be scornful or disrespectful!

The Zhongyong quotes this ode to emphasize that the Gui Shen are "unfathomable" and "not to be slighted." You cannot predict when or how the spirits will descend—this is the "subtle" aspect. But precisely because they are unfathomable, one must maintain reverence and sincerity without the slightest neglect—this is the appropriate response to the "subtle."

The primary theme of the Ode: Yi is Duke Wu's cautious self-admonition. The opening stanza states:

"Solemn is the bearing and demeanor, which marks the corner of virtue. Men also say: No wise man is not foolish. The foolishness of the common man is due to ignorance. The foolishness of the wise man is due to such perversity."

This speaks of self-reflection. If the wise man does not remain vigilant, he too will fall into foolishness. Thus, one must be constantly cautious. The ode continues:

"Look at your friends, the exemplary men; be gentle in your countenance, and you will not err afar. When seen in your room, you should not feel ashamed even before the dark corner. Do not say, 'It is not manifest, no one sees me.' The arrival of the spirits, how cannot it be fathomed! Much less can they be scorned!"

"When seen in your room, you should not feel ashamed even before the dark corner" (Wu kui yu wu lou)—even when alone in a hidden chamber, one should not feel ashamed in one's heart. "Do not say, 'It is not manifest, no one sees me.'" Immediately following this is the quote: "The arrival of the spirits cannot be fathomed, much less can they be scorned!"—because the descent of the spirits is unpredictable, you never know when it will come!

This meaning is profound. The Zhongyong's opening chapter states: "Nothing is more visible than what is hidden, nothing is more manifest than what is subtle; therefore, the exemplary person is cautious when alone" (Shen Qi Du). In the most hidden places, in the most unwitnessed moments, the goodness and badness, the sincerity and falsehood of the heart are most exposed. The descent of Gui Shen is "unfathomable" (Bu Ke Du)—you cannot anticipate when it will come—therefore, you must always maintain reverence and always maintain sincerity. This is the deeper foundation for the discipline of "caution when alone."

Thus, the Zhongyong's citation of this ode is not just about the unpredictability of Gui Shen, but also provides a metaphysical basis for the discipline of "caution when alone." Gui Shen "integrate with all things and cannot be left out" and are "unfathomable"—this is the metaphysical root of "Nothing is more visible than what is hidden, nothing is more manifest than what is subtle."

Section 7: "Indeed, the subtle and the manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!"

This final line summarizes the entire chapter: the three characters "subtle yet manifest" (Wei zhi Xian) encapsulate the chapter's argumentative logic; the five characters "inextinguishable nature of authenticity" (Cheng zhi Bu Ke Yan) clarify the chapter's ultimate thesis.

"Subtle yet manifest"—from the subtle to the clear. The virtue of Gui Shen, its substance is extremely subtle (unseen, unheard), yet its function is extremely manifest (integrates with all things, causes all under Heaven to purify themselves, overflowing as if present). This "subtle" and "manifest" are not opposing ends, but two faces of one substance. Precisely because it is "subtle" (formless, soundless, omnipresent), it is "manifest" (integrates with all things, functioning everywhere without omission).

This logical pattern of "subtle yet manifest" repeatedly appears in pre-Qin texts.

The I Ching, Appendix IV states: "Subtlety (Ji) is the slight movement, the first sign of fortune and misfortune. The exemplary person acts upon subtlety, not waiting for the whole day." This character Ji is a specific manifestation of "subtle yet manifest"—the initial sign of change is extremely subtle, yet those who observe well can foresee the major trend of fortune and misfortune from it.

Laozi, Chapter 64, states: "What is about to be grasped, must first be extended; what is about to be weakened, must first be strengthened; what is about to be ruined, must first be promoted; what is about to be taken, must first be given. This is subtle clarity (Wei Ming)."

Wei Ming (subtle clarity)—these two words are exquisite. "Subtle" is one of its characteristics. Yet the practitioner of the subtle Dao is "deep and unknowable," yet their actions manifest in appearance and conduct—this is the "manifest." The subtle Dao manifests through appearance and conduct; this is "subtle yet manifest."

The Great Learning (Da Xue) states: "To make one's intentions sincere, one must not deceive oneself... This is called being sincere inwardly and manifest outwardly (Cheng Yu Zhong, Xing Yu Wai); therefore, the exemplary person must be cautious when alone." This "sincere inwardly, manifest outwardly" is the expression of "subtle yet manifest" on the level of moral cultivation. The sincerity or falsehood of the heart (subtle) will inevitably manifest in external words and deeds (manifest). The petty person thinks that "when dwelling alone, they do evil with no restraint," believing no one knows—this is failing to understand "subtle yet manifest." Yet, "when others look at one, it is as if seeing one's lungs and liver"—the inner good and evil cannot be concealed.

Furthermore, the Da Xue quotes the Book of Odes: "Gazing at the banks of the Qi, the bamboo grows lushly. There is a refined gentleman, as if cut and filed, as if carved and polished." It also quotes Zengzi: "The eyes of ten people are watching, the fingers of ten people are pointing—how solemn!" Even when alone and unwitnessed, it is as if ten pairs of eyes are watching and ten fingers are pointing. This is the "subtle yet manifest"—the moral pressure generated by the realization that the most hidden place is precisely the most manifest.

Chapter 3: The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits and Pre-Qin Sacrificial Tradition

Section 1: The Original Meaning of High Antiquity Sacrifice

To deeply understand the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits," one must examine the pre-Qin sacrificial tradition, as the argument in this chapter is based upon the experience of sacrifice.

Ancient sacrifice was not merely a product of superstition but held profound cultural significance.

The Liji: Jì Tǒng states:

"In governing people, nothing is more urgent than rites. Rites have five constants, none more important than sacrifice. Sacrifice is not something that comes from outside to within; it arises from the heart within. When the heart is awestruck and applies rites to it, only the worthy can fully exhaust the meaning of sacrifice."

"Not something that comes from outside to within; it arises from the heart within"—sacrifice is not external spirits seeking men out, but sincere reverence arising from the heart. "When the heart is awestruck and applies rites to it"—when the heart is moved, it is then expressed through the form of rites. This is the original meaning of sacrifice.

It further states:

"Sacrifice is not something that comes from outside to within; it arises from the heart within. When the heart is awestruck and applies rites to it, only the worthy can fully exhaust the meaning of sacrifice. When the worthy sacrifice, they must receive their fortune (Fu). This is not the fortune spoken of in this world. Fortune means completeness (Bei). Completeness is the name for a hundred fulfillments; he who has nothing unfulfilled is called complete. This means that within, one fulfills oneself, and without, one conforms to the Dao. A loyal minister serves his ruler; a filial son serves his parents; the foundation is the same."

The fortune (Fu) sought through sacrifice is not worldly fortune but "completeness" (Bei)—"a hundred fulfillments," meaning nothing is unfulfilled. "Within, one fulfills oneself, and without, one conforms to the Dao"—one fulfills one's inner sincerity and reverence, and externally conforms to the Great Dao. This is the function of "Authenticity" (Cheng).

Furthermore, the Liji: Jiyi states:

"The nature of sacrifice is great! Its arising brings completeness to things! Is it the foundation of teaching that follows order and completeness$30 Therefore, the teaching of the exemplary person teaches externally to respect their ruler and elders, and internally to be filial to their parents. Therefore, when a wise ruler is in charge, his ministers obey. When the ancestral temples and altars are revered, the descendants are filial and obedient. When one exhausts the Dao and establishes righteousness, teaching is born thereby."

The function of sacrifice is "teaching" (Jiao). Through sacrifice, people learn to respect rulers, serve parents, and practice filial piety. Sacrifice is not only an offering to Gui Shen but also the fundamental means of cultural education.

The Discourses of the States: Chu Language (Part 2) records an extremely important dialogue where King Zhao of Chu asks Guan Shefu about the "Severing of Earth and Heaven" (Jue Di Tian Tong):

"King Zhao asked Guan Shefu: 'What does the Book of Zhou mean by Chong and Li causing Heaven and Earth to become disconnected$31 If this were so, would men be able to ascend to Heaven$32'"

He replied: "This is not what is meant. In antiquity, the people and spirits did not intermingle. When the essence and spirit of the people were unswerving and unified, and they were able to be pure, solemn, upright, and sincere (Qi Su Zhong Zheng), their intelligence could reach up to Heaven and down to Earth with righteousness; their sagacity could illuminate afar; their clarity could shine upon all things; their hearing could penetrate thoroughly—in such a case, the bright spirits would descend upon them. For men, they were called Xian (shaman); for women, they were called Wu (shamaness). They were commanded to establish the positions and masters for the spirits, and prepare the sacrificial animals, vessels, and robes; and then they commanded the descendants of the former sages who possessed brilliance and achievement, who knew the names of mountains and rivers, the masters of the ancestral sacrifices, the affairs of the ancestral temples, the generations of the ancestral line, the diligence of purity and reverence, the propriety of rites and decorum, the dignity of demeanor, and the substance of loyalty and trustworthiness—these people were made the invocators (Zhu). And those whose lineage allowed them to know the growth of the four seasons, the materials for the sacrificial animals, the types of jade and silk, the colors and attire, the measures of the ritual vessels, the order of the sacrifices, the positions of the tablets, the places of the altars, the spirits above and below, and the lineage of the clans, and who followed the ancient precedents in their hearts—these were made the patriarchs (Zong). Thus, there were offices for the categories of people, spirits, and things that connected Heaven, Earth, people, and spirits—these were the Five Offices, each managing its own order without transgression. Thus, the people possessed loyalty and trustworthiness, and the spirits possessed bright virtue; the people and spirits had separate duties, revered each other without profanation. Therefore, the spirits sent down auspicious births, and the people offered their things in sacrifice; disasters did not strike, and the means of supplication were never exhausted."

"When the decline of Shao Hao came, the Jiu Li corrupted virtue, and the people and spirits intermingled, confusing the categories. People began making offerings in their own houses, with each family acting as its own shaman or scribe, without any clear standard. The people became deficient in sacrifice, and did not know their blessings. Offerings were without measure, and people and spirits shared the same status. The people profaned their solemn vows, without solemnity or awe. Spirits became intimate with the people, failing to maintain their proper sphere. Auspicious births did not descend, there was nothing to offer, and disasters came in succession, exhausting all the vital energy. Zhuanxu received this mandate and ordered Chong, the Southern Marshal, to manage Heaven and connect it to the spirits, and ordered Li, the Fire Marshal, to manage Earth and connect it to the people. He commanded them to restore the old order, and not allow transgression or profanation. This is what is meant by 'Severing of Earth and Heaven.'"

This passage, though lengthy, is highly significant. Its core point is: In antiquity, the proper relationship between people and spirits required the people to possess "unwavering essence and spirit" (Jing Shuang Bu Xie Yi) and "purity, solemnity, uprightness, and sincerity" (Qi Su Zhong Zheng)—all manifestations of "Authenticity" (Cheng). When people lost sincerity, the separation between people and spirits became blurred ("people and spirits intermingled"), leading to disorder in sacrifice and disaster.

This directly corresponds to the Zhongyong's point: "They cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices." This purification (Zhai Jie) is the means of maintaining the proper relationship between Heaven and man. Its essence is "Authenticity" (Cheng).

Section 2: Evolution of Sacrificial Rites in the Three Dynasties

The evolution of pre-Qin sacrifices, from high antiquity through the Three Dynasties, involved profound changes.

Xia Dynasty Sacrifice:

Confucius commented on the Three Dynasties in the Analects, Ba Yi: "I can speak of the rites of Xia, but the descendants of Qi are insufficient to attest to them; I can speak of the rites of Yin, but the descendants of Song are insufficient to attest to them. If the documents were sufficient, I could attest to them."

The Liji: Biao Ji records Confucius discussing the teachings of the Three Dynasties:

"The Master said: 'The Way of Xia prized mandate; they served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance, drew close to men and were loyal. Their rewards were straightforward, their punishments measured. They honored first the emoluments, then the authority; they rewarded first, then punished. They were intimate yet not familiar; the deterioration of their people was sluggishness and stupidity, arrogance and rudeness, simplicity without cultivation.'"

The Xia people "served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance"—this attitude of "respecting yet keeping distant" aligns with Confucius's own view. The Xia drew close to men and were loyal, centering on human affairs, respecting Gui Shen but without excess.

Yin Shang Sacrifice:

The Biao Ji continues:

"The people of Yin prized the spirits; they led the people in serving them, prioritizing ghosts over rites, and punishments over rewards. They were revered yet not intimate; the deterioration of their people was recklessness and restlessness, aggression without shame."

The Yin people "prized the spirits" and "led the people in serving them"—the central position of Gui Shen sacrifice in Shang culture is evidenced by the oracle bones. The Shang performed divination for almost everything and constantly consulted the spirits. The frequency and grandeur of their sacrifices far exceeded those of the Xia. However, the flaw was that the people became "reckless and restless"—over-reliance on spirits made the populace unstable.

Zhou Dynasty Sacrifice:

The Biao Ji concludes:

"The people of Zhou prized rites and valued contributions; they served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance, drew close to men and were loyal. Their rewards and punishments were based on rank. They were intimate yet not familiar; the deterioration of their people was profit-seeking and craftiness, elegance without shame, villainy veiled by appearance."

The Zhou "prized rites and valued contributions"—rites were central. "They served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance"—this point is similar to the Xia. The Zhou characteristic was "prizing rites"—integrating Gui Shen sacrifice into the framework of ritual, standardizing and institutionalizing it.

From the evolution across the three dynasties, a clear trajectory emerges: the attitude toward Gui Shen shifted from "respecting yet keeping distant" (Xia), to "prizing spirits and leading the people to serve them" (Yin), and finally returning to "respecting yet keeping distant" while using "rites" for regulation (Zhou). The Zhou's "respecting Gui Shen while keeping them distant" was not disbelief; it was integrating spirit sacrifice into the structure of humane education.

The Zhongyong inherits the tradition of the Zhou rites, further deepening this view. It does not deny the reality of Gui Shen ("integrate with all things and cannot be left out," "overflowing as if present"), but grounds the meaning of Gui Shen in "Authenticity" (Cheng)—a more fundamental metaphysical principle.

Section 3: Why Can "Authenticity" Resonate with Ghosts and Spirits$33

We must now ask a core question: Why can "Authenticity" resonate with Gui Shen$34

In pre-Qin texts, a recurring concept holds that ultimate sincerity can resonate with Heaven, Earth, and the spirits.

The Shangshu: Jin Teng records the famous incident where Duke Zhou prayed to the former kings with utmost sincerity, offering his own body for King Wu's illness. "When the Duke returned, he placed the inscribed document in the bamboo casket. The next day, the King recovered."

The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Zhuang Thirty-second Year records Gong Ziqi advising Duke Yu of Yu:

"I have heard that ghosts and spirits do not naturally associate with men; they rely solely on virtue (De). Thus, the Book of Zhou says: 'Heaven is impartial; it assists only virtue.' It also says: 'Millet and sacrificial grains are not fragrant; bright virtue is fragrant.' It also says: 'The people do not change things; they rely on virtue to transform things.' If this is so, then without virtue, the people are not harmonious, and the spirits do not partake. The place where spirits rely on is virtue. If the Jin takes Yu, and offers up bright virtue as fragrant incense, will the spirits spit it out$1"

This passage is crucial. Gong Ziqi explicitly states: "Gui Shen fei ren shi qin, wei De shi Yi"—Ghosts and spirits do not associate intimately with people; they rely solely on virtue. They do not favor any particular person but rather "rely on virtue." "Shu Ji Fei Xin, Ming De Wei Xin"—Millet and grain are not fragrant; bright virtue is the true fragrance. This means the spiritual efficacy of sacrifice is rooted not in the material offerings, but in the virtue of the sacrificer.

This idea has a wide influence in pre-Qin thought.

The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xiang Eleventh Year quotes Ji Wuzi:

"Ghosts and spirits are not of our lineage; they do not partake in our sacrifices."

While this speaks from the perspective of lineage law, the deeper implication is that there is a kinship of essence and virtue between Gui Shen and man, and only those with ultimate sincerity can achieve resonance.

Synthesizing the above materials, we can summarize the pre-Qin rationale for why "sincerity can resonate with Gui Shen":

First: The essence of Gui Shen is De (virtue, unfeigned reality), and human "Authenticity" (Cheng) is also unfeigned reality. Cheng and De are of the same substance, hence they can resonate. It is like tuning two strings of a lute: if they share the same frequency, sounding one causes the other to vibrate.

Second: Gui Shen "integrate with all things and cannot be left out," being omnipresent. Human sincere heart is also inherent in the deepest part of man. When man opens himself with ultimate sincerity, he naturally touches that omnipresent virtue of Gui Shen.

Third: From the perspective of Yin-Yang Qi transformation, Gui Shen are the ebb and flow of Yin-Yang Qi, and human life is also a condensation of Yin-Yang Qi. Ultimate human sincerity harmonizes one's own Yin-Yang and clears the flow of Qi, thus enabling resonance with the Yin-Yang of Heaven and Earth.

This third point finds clear theoretical support in the I Ching. The I Ching, Xian Gua, Tuan Zhuan states:

"Xian is resonance. Soft above and rigid below, the two Qi resonate and interact, stopping yet delighting. The male goes down to the female, thus it is favorable for perseverance; taking a wife is auspicious. Heaven and Earth resonate, and the myriad things are transformed and born. The sage resonates with the hearts of men, and the world achieves peace. Observe what resonates, and the nature of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things can be known."

"The two Qi resonate and interact"—the mutual resonance of Yin and Yang is the essence of Xian (Resonance). By extension, all connections between Heaven, Earth, and things are based on "resonance." Heaven and Earth resonate, and the myriad things are transformed and born; the sage resonates with human hearts, and the world achieves peace. The resonance between the virtue of Gui Shen and human sincerity is also a form of this "resonance."

Furthermore, the I Ching, Appendix III states: "The Yi has no thought, no deliberate action; it is still and motionless, yet responsive, it consequently permeates the world. If not for the ultimate spirit (Zhi Shen), who could share in this$2" "Still and motionless, yet responsive" (Jì Rán Bu Dong, Gan Er Sui Tong)—this perfectly describes the virtue of Gui Shen. The virtue of Gui Shen is itself "still and motionless" (unseen, unheard), but once there is "response" (ultimate human sincerity), it "consequently permeates the world"—all things change because of this resonance. This "ultimate spirit" (Zhi Shen) is the "Spirit" in the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits."

Chapter 4: The Thinking Pattern of "Subtle yet Manifest" and Pre-Qin Philosophy

Section 1: The Dialectic of "Subtle" and "Manifest"

"Subtle yet manifest" (Wei zhi Xian)—these three characters contain an extremely profound thinking pattern in pre-Qin philosophy.

"Subtle" (Wei) refers to that which is hidden and imperceptible. "Manifest" (Xian) refers to that which is clear and perceptible. "Subtle yet manifest"—from the subtle to the manifest, the subtle is the manifest, the subtle contains the manifest, and the subtle is not separate from the manifest.

This thinking pattern appears widely in pre-Qin classics.

"Subtle yet Manifest" in the I Ching:

The Appendix IV states: "Knowing subtlety (Ji) is spiritual! The exemplary person does not flatter those above him, nor is he disrespectful to those below him; his knowledge approaches this. Subtlety is the slight movement, the first sign of fortune. The exemplary person acts upon subtlety, not waiting for the whole day."

"Ji zhe Dong Zhi Wei"—Ji is the most subtle sign of change. Yet this most subtle sign is "the first sign of fortune and misfortune"—it portends great fortune or disaster. This is "subtle yet manifest": what seems like a negligible clue actually contains significant information.

The Kun Gua, Wen Yan states: "A family that accumulates good deeds will have surplus blessings; a family that accumulates evil deeds will have surplus misfortunes. A minister killing his sovereign, a son killing his father—this is not the work of a single morning or evening; it has gradually accumulated from an early point, from the failure to distinguish it early on. The Yi says: 'Stepping on frost signals the coming of hard ice.' This speaks of yielding."

"Stepping on frost signals the coming of hard ice"—stepping on frost indicates that hard ice is about to arrive. Frost is the "subtle," hard ice is the "manifest." "It has gradually accumulated"—the subtle becoming manifest is not instantaneous but gradual. This is the manifestation of "subtle yet manifest" in historical events.

"Subtle yet Manifest" in Laozi:

Laozi, Chapter 15, states: "Those who anciently excelled in following the Dao were subtle, profound, and mysteriously penetrating, so deep that they could not be known."

"Wei Miao Xuan Tong" (subtle, profound, mysteriously penetrating)—"subtle" is one of its characteristics. Yet the practitioner of the Dao who is "deep and unknowable" acts in ways described as: "Cautious as if crossing a winter river; Hesitant as if fearing neighbors; Solemn as if a guest; Unfettered as if ice about to melt; Solid as if an uncarved block; Open as if a valley; Turbulent as if mixed with silt." All these descriptions are "manifest." The subtle Dao manifests in countenance and conduct; this is "subtle yet manifest."

Laozi, Chapter 36, states: "What one wants to contract, one must first expand; what one wants to weaken, one must first strengthen; what one wants to discard, one must first promote; what one wants to take, one must first give. This is subtle clarity (Wei Ming)."

Wei Ming—these words are extremely precise. "Subtle" means "clear"; the obscure is the clear. The principle of the Dao may be subtle, but its effect is very obvious. This "subtle clarity" echoes the Zhongyong's "subtle yet manifest."

"Subtle yet Manifest" in the Da Xue:

The Da Xue states: "To make one's intentions sincere (Cheng Qi Yi) is to not deceive oneself... This is called being sincere inwardly and manifest outwardly (Cheng Yu Zhong, Xing Yu Wai); therefore, the exemplary person must be cautious when alone." The sincerity or falsehood of the inner heart (subtle) must manifest in external words and deeds (manifest). The petty person thinks that "when dwelling alone, they do evil with no restraint," believing no one knows—this is failing to understand "subtle yet manifest." Yet, "when others look at one, it is as if seeing one's lungs and liver"—the inner good and evil cannot be concealed.

The Da Xue also quotes the Odes: "Gazing at the banks of the Qi, the bamboo grows lushly. There is a refined gentleman, as if cut and filed, as if carved and polished." This echoes the solemn pressure of being watched, which is the realization that even in solitude, one is exposed.

Section 2: Why does the "Subtle" become "Manifest"$3—Pre-Qin Answers

Since this pattern of "subtle yet manifest" is so pervasive in pre-Qin thought, how did pre-Qin thinkers explain why the "subtle" becomes "manifest"$4

Answer 1: Theory of Qi Resonance.

Pre-Qin theories of Yin-Yang Qi transformation held that Heaven, Earth, and all things are the flowing of Yin-Yang Qi. The subtle aspects of Qi (like the virtue of Gui Shen), though imperceptible to sight and hearing, belong to the same Qi as the coarse and manifest aspects (like tangible objects with sound and form), hence they can resonate. This aligns with the I Ching, Appendix III's statement: "Like sounds respond to each other, like Qi seeks its kind."

"Water flows downward to dampness, fire ascends toward dryness; clouds follow the dragon, wind follows the tiger. When the sage arises, the myriad things are seen. That which follows Heaven approaches above, that which follows Earth approaches below, so each follows its own kind."

Everything follows its own kind: the subtle resonates with the subtle, the manifest with the manifest, and the subtle and manifest are connected by Qi.

Answer 2: Natural Manifestation of the Dao-Substance.

Laozi states: "The Dao gives birth to One; One gives birth to Two; Two gives birth to Three; Three gives birth to the myriad things." The Dao substance is supremely subtle ("The Dao is hidden and nameless"), but it naturally unfolds into the myriad things—this unfolding process is "subtle yet manifest." It is not an external force making it manifest, but its inherent necessity making it manifest.

Laozi, Chapter 36, states: "What one wants to contract, one must first expand; what one wants to weaken, one must first strengthen; what one wants to discard, one must first promote; what one wants to take, one must first give. This is subtle clarity (Wei Ming)."

"Subtle Clarity" (Wei Ming)—this term is extremely precise. "Subtle" means "clear"; the obscure is the clear. The principle of the Dao may be subtle, but its effect is very obvious. This "subtle clarity" coincides with the Zhongyong's "subtle yet manifest."

Answer 3: The Resonant Capacity of the Human Heart.

Man is able to perceive the "subtle yet manifest" because the human heart itself possesses the capacity for resonance.

Mencius, Jin Xin (Part 1) states: "To exhaust one's mind is to know one's nature. Knowing one's nature, one knows Heaven. To preserve one's mind and nourish one's nature is how one serves Heaven. To remain indifferent to longevity or early death, and cultivate the self while awaiting it, is how one establishes one's fate."

The human mind has the ability to "exhaust the mind to know nature and know Heaven"—that is, to arrive at the farthest reaches (Heaven) from the closest point (the mind). This is the human capacity for resonance. Because of this capacity, man can experience in sacrifice that the Gui Shen are "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them"—one can perceive the subtle manifestation of the virtue of Gui Shen.

Mencius, Gongsun Chou (Part 1) states: "When Qi is cultivated this way, it is most vast and most rigid. If nourished uprightly without harm, it fills the space between Heaven and Earth." This "vast and mighty Qi" is cultivated by human ultimate sincerity. With this Qi, one connects with the Qi of Heaven and Earth and naturally resonates with all subtle virtues.

Section 3: The Logical Connection Between "Subtle yet Manifest" and "Caution When Alone" (Shen Du)—The Inner Logic of Pre-Qin Cultivation

"Subtle yet manifest" is not only a metaphysical proposition but also the inner logic of pre-Qin self-cultivation.

The Zhongyong, Chapter 1, states:

"The Way (Dao) cannot be left for a moment; if it could be left, it would not be the Dao. Therefore, the exemplary person is cautious when he does not see, and fearful when he does not hear. Nothing is more visible than what is hidden, nothing is more manifest than what is subtle; therefore, the exemplary person is cautious when alone (Shen Qi Du)."

"Nothing is more visible than what is hidden, nothing is more manifest than what is subtle"—why$5 Because of "subtle yet manifest"—because the nature of "Authenticity" is inextinguishable. In the most hidden moments of solitude, the good and evil, the sincerity and falsehood of the human heart are precisely most exposed. Why$6 Because in public, one can feign and embellish; but in solitude, the impetus for pretense disappears, and one's true face naturally emerges. This true face, whether good or evil, sincere or false, is "subtle" and hidden, but it is precisely the most "manifest"—it determines the fundamental quality of that person.

Thus, the discipline of "caution when alone" (Shen Du) is established upon the cognition of "subtle yet manifest." Knowing "subtle yet manifest," knowing that "authenticity cannot be concealed," one is especially cautious when alone—because this very moment is when one is most truly facing oneself.

This meaning is repeatedly emphasized in the Da Xue: "To make one's intentions sincere, one must not deceive oneself." Because self-deception is ultimately futile—"authenticity cannot be concealed"—one's self-deception will eventually "manifest outwardly" and be seen by others.

From this, we can see the inner logic of pre-Qin Confucian cultivation:

1. The essence of the Heavenly Dao is "Authenticity" (Cheng - unfeigned reality).
2. Human nature receives this from the Heavenly Dao, so human nature is also "Authenticity."
3. The essence of "Authenticity" is "inextinguishable"—true things will eventually manifest.
4. Therefore, the key to cultivation is "caution when alone"—maintaining sincerity in the most subtle moments, because that is precisely where manifestation is easiest.
5. If one is cautious when alone, then the inner and outer are unified; if inner and outer are unified, then "sincerity inwardly, manifestation outwardly" (Cheng Yu Zhong Xing Yu Wai); if "sincere inwardly, manifest outwardly," one can reach the natural state of "subtle yet manifest"—without needing deliberate demonstration, virtue naturally flows from the heart.

This aligns perfectly with the argument of the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." Gui Shen do not need to "show off" (they are even unseen and unheard), but their "authenticity" (their real function of integrating with all things) naturally manifests between Heaven and Earth, compelling reverence. Likewise, the exemplary person does not need to deliberately boast of their virtue; as long as their inner heart is supremely sincere, their virtue will naturally manifest in an "inextinguishable" manner.

Part Two: That Which is Authentic Completes Itself—The Positive Unfolding of the Dao-Substance

Chapter 5: "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself, and the Dao Guides Itself"—The Self-Sufficiency of Authenticity and the Dao

Section 1: What is "Self-Completion" (Zi Cheng)$7

"That which is authentic completes itself" (Cheng zhe zi cheng ye)—this line clearly states the most fundamental characteristic of "Authenticity" (Cheng): Self-Completion.

The phrase "Self-Completion" carries profound meaning. Zi means self. Cheng means to complete or achieve. "Self-completion"—Authenticity achieves itself; it requires no external force to achieve it.

What does this mean$8

Let us return to the original meaning of Cheng. In pre-Qin texts, the basic meaning of Cheng is "truth" or "non-deception." The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Wen Eighteenth Year discusses oaths and betrayals, where the true fear in one's heart (Ji) is related to sincerity. The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xiang Second Year states: "A state that loses trust is bound to collapse." Trust (Xin) and authenticity (Cheng) are closely related in meaning.

Mencius, Li Lou (Part 1) states: "Authenticity (Cheng) is the Way of Heaven; striving for authenticity (Si Cheng) is the Way of man. There has never been one who was utterly sincere and yet unmoved; if one is not sincere, one cannot move others." This is one of the most crucial statements on Cheng in pre-Qin philosophy. Mencius clearly states: "Authenticity is the Way of Heaven"—it is the characteristic of the Heavenly Dao itself.

Why is the Way of Heaven "Authentic"$9 Because the operation of the Heavenly Dao—the movement of the sun and moon, the succession of the four seasons, the growth of all things—is all "real" (not illusory, not fabricated, not forced, not decorated). This characteristic of "true and non-artificial" (Zhen Shi Wu Wang) is "Authenticity."

The "self-completion" (Zi Cheng) in "That which is authentic completes itself" is a necessary conclusion drawn from the "true and non-artificial" nature of the Heavenly Dao. The operation of the Heavenly Dao is not propelled by some external force; it is naturally so, existing by itself. This is what Laozi meant by "the Dao follows the spontaneity of nature" (Dao Fa Zi Ran). Zi Ran does not mean the natural world, but "being so of itself."

Similarly, Cheng is called "Cheng" because it is inherently true and non-artificial, self-sufficient. Truth itself requires no external guarantee—truth is truth. Therefore, "Authenticity" must be "self-completing." If it required external force to be established, it would imply that it itself was insufficient or lacking—but the meaning of Cheng lies precisely in being "true and non-artificial" and "full and complete."

This meaning deeply resonates with the spirit of the Qian (Heavenly) trigram in the I Ching. The Qian Gua, Tuan Zhuan states:

"Great indeed is the Primal Beginning (Qian Yuan), the beginning of the myriad things, thus encompassing Heaven. Clouds gather and rain falls, the myriad things display their forms. Great brightness completes the beginning and end; the six positions complete themselves in time, riding the six dragons to govern Heaven. The Way of Qian transforms, each settling its own nature and destiny, harmonizing in the Great Peace, thus benefiting and persevering. It puts forth all things first, and the myriad states find tranquility."

"The Way of Qian transforms, each settling its own nature and destiny" (Ge Zheng Xing Ming)—the transformation of the Qian Way causes all things to attain their proper nature and destiny. This "settling of nature and destiny" is the "self-completion" of all things. Things achieve their respective natures and destinies not because of external force, but because of the inherent efficacy of the Heavenly Dao (the Authentic substance). This is the meaning of "That which is authentic completes itself."

Why emphasize "self-completion"$10 Because if "Authenticity" were not "self-completing," but required external force to be established, then it would not be true "Authenticity." Something that needs an external guarantee of its truth is inherently flawed and deficient—but the meaning of Cheng lies precisely in "true and non-artificial" and "full and complete." Thus, "Authenticity" must be "self-completing."

Section 2: "And the Dao Guides Itself" (Er Dao Zi Dao Ye)

"And the Dao guides itself" (Er Dao Zi Dao Ye)—this line is even more subtle.

"Dao guides itself"—the first Dao is the noun, referring to the Great Dao of Heaven and Earth; the second Dao is the verb, meaning to guide or walk. "The Dao guides itself"—the Dao guides itself.

How does this line relate to "That which is authentic completes itself"$11

These two phrases form a parallel pair:

• That which is authentic completes itself (Cheng zhe zi cheng ye)—Authenticity completes itself.
• The Dao guides itself (Dao zi Dao ye)—The Dao guides itself.

The relationship is that "Authenticity" (Cheng) and "Dao" are not two separate things here, but two aspects of the same reality. Cheng emphasizes the truthfulness of the substance (what it is), while Dao emphasizes the unfolding of its function (how it operates). "Authenticity completes itself" speaks of the self-sufficiency of the substance; "The Dao guides itself" speaks of the self-propulsion of its function. Taken together: the true substance naturally unfolds its own path, requiring no external guidance.

This meaning is also echoed in the I Ching. The Appendix III states:

"One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao; what follows it is good (Shan); what completes it is nature (Xing)."

"One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao"—the alternation of Yin and Yang is the Dao. This operation is not arranged by an external agent but follows the inherent logic of Yin and Yang. When Yin reaches its extreme, Yang arises; when Yang reaches its extreme, Yin arises—this is the natural tendency. "What follows it is good"—the continuation of this operation is goodness. "What completes it is nature"—the actualization of this operation in the individual is nature.

The entire process—from Dao to Goodness to Nature—unfolds naturally, without external intervention. This is the meaning of "The Dao guides itself."

However, a distinction must be made between Confucianism and Daoism here. Laozi states "The Dao follows the spontaneity of nature" (Dao Fa Zi Ran), where Zi Ran emphasizes "non-action" (Wu Wei)—the Dao does not deliberately act; everything proceeds naturally. The Zhongyong's "The Dao guides itself" (Dao Zi Dao Ye), while certainly implying naturalness, leans more toward "self-consciousness" (Zi Jue)—in man, the Dao not only operates naturally but is also expressed as moral self-consciousness—knowing good from evil, choosing and firmly adhering to the good.

This subtle difference can be seen through the character Cheng. Laozi's Dao is value-neutral; it is just "natural." The Zhongyong's Cheng has "Authenticity" as its essence—it is not only natural, but it is also truly real and completely full, without artificiality. This "true and non-artificial" quality, when expressed in man, manifests as moral self-consciousness—knowing good and evil, choosing and firmly adhering to the good. This sense of "self-consciousness" is unique to the Zhongyong's expression of "The Dao guides itself."

Section 3: "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things; without authenticity, there are no things."

This sentence extends the meaning of Cheng from the Heavenly Dao to the myriad things.

"Cheng zhe wu zhi zhong shi"—Authenticity is the beginning and end of all things. The beginning and end of every thing depend on "Authenticity."

What does this mean$12

The "beginning" (Shi) of a thing—the reason it can arise and exist—is "Authenticity." Cheng is the true principle, and every thing has its own true principle, thus each can exist. Without principle, there are no things—something without a basis in truth cannot exist.

The "end" (Zhong) of a thing—the reason it can develop and reach completion—is also because of "Authenticity." The process of a thing from beginning to end is the gradual unfolding and realization of its "Authenticity" (true nature). A seed can grow into a great tree because the seed inherently contains the "Authenticity" (true nature) of a great tree. The "beginning" of the seed is Cheng, and the "end" of the tree is also Cheng—it is consistent from beginning to end.

"Bu cheng wu wu"—Without authenticity, there are no things. This statement is extremely abrupt. It implies that "Authenticity" is not an attribute added externally to the myriad things; it is the fundamental condition for their existence. Something unreal (something without Cheng) cannot even be called a "thing"—it is merely illusion.

This idea has deep roots in pre-Qin philosophy.

The I Ching, Qian Gua, Wen Yan states:

"The Primal Beginning (Qian Yuan) is that which initiates and causes flourishing. Benefit and perseverance are inherent in nature and disposition. The Qian, being the first, is able to benefit the world with beautiful advantages, yet speaks not of its own benefit—how great it is!..."

"The Primal Beginning initiates and causes flourishing" (Qian Yuan, Shi Er Heng)—Qian Yuan (the primal source of the Heavenly Dao) benefits the world with its beautiful advantages. This "beginning" (Shi) is the "beginning" in "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things"—the beginning of all things stems from the Qian Yuan (the Authentic substance) of the Heavenly Dao.

Furthermore, the I Ching, Appendix III states: "The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is life." The greatest virtue of Heaven and Earth is "life"—the generation of myriad things. This "life" is possible precisely because Heaven and Earth are "Authentic." If Heaven and Earth were not "Authentic" (not real), they could not generate the myriad things.

Mencius's discussion can also be referenced. Mencius, Li Lou (Part 1) states: "Authenticity (Cheng) is the Way of Heaven." The essence of the Heavenly Dao is Authenticity. Since all things are generated by the Heavenly Dao, all things take Authenticity as their beginning. All things return to the Heavenly Dao ("end"), also taking Authenticity as their end. "Without authenticity, there are no things"—apart from the Authenticity of the Heavenly Dao, no thing can exist.

Section 4: "Therefore, the exemplary person values authenticity above all."

From the metaphysical proposition "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things; without authenticity, there are no things," the text immediately transitions to human conduct: "Therefore, the exemplary person values authenticity above all" (Shi gu junzi cheng zhi wei gui).

This turn is extremely crucial. It shows that the Zhongyong's discussion of "Authenticity" is not merely about establishing an abstract ontology, but about implementing this ontology in human cultivation.

Why does the exemplary person value "Authenticity" above all$13

Because "Authenticity" is the fundamental basis of all existence. All things begin and end with Cheng; without Cheng, there are no things. Man is also one of the myriad things—if a person is not authentic, the "personhood" (Ren Ge) itself cannot be established. A dishonest person's benevolence, righteousness, rites, and wisdom are all false; everything they do is unreal—equivalent to "no thing."

Thus, "the exemplary person values authenticity above all"—the exemplary person regards Cheng as the most precious thing. It is not just one item among moral qualities, but the foundation of all moral qualities. Without Cheng, benevolence cannot be called benevolence, righteousness cannot be called righteousness, rites cannot be called rites, and wisdom cannot be called wisdom.

The Analects, Wei Zheng states: "If a man has no faith (Xin), I do not know what he can do. How can a large cart proceed without a coupling-pin, or a small cart without a cross-bar$14" This concept of Xin (faithfulness/trustworthiness) is close to Cheng. If a man lacks Xin (is inauthentic), he is like a cart without its crucial connecting parts, unable to move. The functioning of all virtues depends on Cheng as the pivot.

Furthermore, the Analects, Xue Er states: "Flattering words and a pretentious manner are seldom associated with true benevolence (Ren)." Those who use flattering words and wear pretentious expressions are inauthentic. Such inauthentic people will have little Ren. Conversely, "Being firm and resolute, simple and honest, is close to benevolence" (Gang Yi Mu Ne Jin Ren)—those who are firm, resolute, simple, and unadorned are closer to Ren because they do not feign or pretend—they are "Authentic."

Chapter 6: "Authenticity does not merely complete oneself; it is that by which things are completed."

Section 1: From "Self-Completion" to "Completion of Things"—The Outward Orientation of Authenticity

"Authenticity does not merely complete oneself; it is that by which things are completed" (Cheng zhe fei zi cheng ji er yi ye, suo yi cheng wu ye). This line is a vital supplement and progression from "That which is authentic completes itself."

The previous statement, "That which is authentic completes itself," might give the impression that Cheng only involves self-achievement and is unrelated to other things. This line immediately corrects that misconception: Cheng not only completes the self but is also the means by which things are completed.

How is this possible$15

Because "Authenticity" is not the private possession of an individual; it is the fundamental reality of the Heavenly Dao. The Authenticity of the Heavenly Dao is present in all things—"Authenticity is the beginning and end of things." My Cheng is the manifestation of the Heavenly Dao's Cheng within me. When I achieve ultimate sincerity, what I manifest is not merely "my" sincerity, but the Authenticity of the Heavenly Dao. And the Authenticity of the Heavenly Dao is inherently about "completing things"—the "great virtue of Heaven and Earth is life," meaning Heaven and Earth generate all things through their authenticity. My ultimate sincerity must therefore possess this function of "completing things."

This meaning aligns deeply with Confucius's educational practice. Confucius's teaching was aimed at completing others as his own goal. The Analects, Yong Ye states: "The benevolent person, wishing to establish himself, also establishes others; wishing to be accomplished, also helps others to be accomplished. Being able to take an example close at hand and apply it universally—this may be called the method of benevolence."

"Wishing to establish himself, also establishes others; wishing to be accomplished, also helps others to be accomplished" (Ji Yu Li Er Li Ren, Ji Yu Da Er Da Ren)—one's own "establishment" and "accomplishment" is "completing the self," while helping others to "establish" and "accomplish" is "completing things."

Why must the self's "establishment" and "accomplishment" extend to others$16 Because that is the nature of "Authenticity." The person of ultimate sincerity shares the same body as Heaven and Earth—Heaven and Earth do not generate just one thing, but all things. The love of the supremely sincere person extends not just to the self but to all things.

Section 2: "To complete oneself is benevolence (Ren); to complete things is wisdom (Zhi)."

This line corresponds "completing the self" to Ren (Benevolence) and "completing things" to Zhi (Wisdom).

"To complete oneself is benevolence" (Cheng ji, Ren ye)—To complete oneself is Ren.

Why is completing oneself Ren$17 Ren means love, and also self-love. However, this "self-love" is not self-love based on selfish desire, but the self-love involved in achieving one's true inherent nature. To make oneself a genuine person—to fully realize the nature bestowed by Heaven—this is "completing the self," and this is Ren.

Mencius, Jin Xin (Part 2) states: "Ren is man. Combined, it is the Dao." Ren is the Way of being human. "Completing the self" means making oneself a true "man." What makes a man human is his capacity to be "benevolent." Therefore, "to complete oneself is benevolence."

The Analects, Yan Yuan states: "To subdue oneself and return to propriety (Li) is benevolence (Ren). If a man can one day subdue himself and return to propriety, all under Heaven will return to benevolence. To practice benevolence is a matter of one's own self; is it the business of others$18" "Wei Ren You Ji"—the realization of Ren depends on oneself. This "depending on oneself" is "completing the self."

"To complete things is wisdom" (Cheng wu, Zhi ye)—To complete things is Zhi.

Why is completing things Zhi$19 Because "completing things" requires understanding the distinct characteristics and needs of all things. All things have their own nature—plants have the nature of plants, beasts have the nature of beasts, and men have the nature of men. To complete them, one must know what each needs and what is suitable for it. This is "Wisdom" (Zhi).

The I Ching, Appendix III states: "If one understands the totality of the myriad things and thus assists the world with the Dao, one does not transgress." Knowledge that extends to the myriad things is what "assists the world." This Zhi is the prerequisite for "completing things."

Moreover, the Analects, Wei Zheng states: "To know when you know something, and to know when you do not know something—that is knowledge." This states that the primary condition for Zhi is truth—not deceiving oneself, not falsely claiming knowledge. This is also "Authenticity" (Cheng). Thus, Zhi and Cheng are interconnected.

The Analects, Yong Ye states: "The wise man delights in water; the benevolent man delights in mountains. The wise man is active; the benevolent man is tranquil. The wise man is happy; the benevolent man is long-lived." The wise man is active and delights in water—Zhi possesses the characteristics of movement, flexibility, and unobstructed flow, which is precisely what is needed for "completing things." Because the myriad things are diverse, completing them requires flexible and penetrating wisdom, capable of applying different methods according to the difference of things.

However, "to complete oneself is benevolence" and "to complete things is wisdom" are not strictly separate. Ren and Zhi are originally one. The Zhongyong later states: "It is the virtue of the nature, the Way that unites the inner and the outer." Ren focuses on the inner (completing the self), while Zhi focuses on the outer (completing things), but the inner and outer are fundamentally one. Completing the self implies the function of completing things, and completing things realizes the merit of completing the self.

This subtle connection can be illustrated by the practices of Confucius's disciples.

Yan Hui—The Analects, Yong Ye states: "Hui’s mind, for three months, did not depart from benevolence." Yan Hui's learning focused on completing his own Ren. "Did not depart from benevolence" (Bu Wei Ren)—constantly maintaining the benevolent mind, never letting it slip away. This is the ultimate realization of "completing the self."

Zigong—Zigon was skilled in rhetoric, diplomacy, and commerce. Texts like the Zuo Zhuan and Guoyu record his diplomatic journeys. This is the wisdom (Zhi) of "completing things"—influencing the external world through wisdom.

However, Yan Hui's self-completion was not selfish; his mind that "did not depart from benevolence" naturally influenced others ("When Yanzi employed it, though without office, he became a teacher for all ages"). Zigong's completion of things was not superficial; his diplomatic skill was rooted in his sincere belief in righteousness and the Dao. Therefore, completing the self and completing things are ultimately two sides of one matter.

Section 3: "It is the virtue of the nature, the Way that unites the inner and the outer, and therefore it is appropriately applied at all times."

"It is the virtue of the nature" (Xing zhi de ye)—This unity of completing the self and completing things, the integration of Ren and Zhi, is the inherent "virtue" (De) of "Nature" (Xing).

Xing is the inherent reality bestowed by Heaven. De means "gain," the inherent function of Xing. The Ren of completing the self and the Zhi of completing things are not externally added; they are originally possessed by human nature. This connects with the Zhongyong's opening line: "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature." The nature bestowed by Heaven inherently contains Ren and Zhi and inherently possesses the capacity for self-completion and completion of things.

"The Way that unites the inner and the outer" (He Wai Nei Zhi Dao ye)—This Way of completing the self and things unites the "outer" and the "inner."

The "inner" is completing the self, Ren. The "outer" is completing things, Zhi. The two are not opposing poles but two faces of one substance. Uniting the outer and inner means dissolving the separation between them, so that completing the self is completing things, and completing things realizes the completion of the self.

This concept of "uniting the outer and inner" has significant meaning in pre-Qin thought.

The I Ching, Kun Gua, Wen Yan states: "Kun, though extremely yielding, acts vigorously; though extremely still, its virtue is upright. It receives the master later and possesses constancy; it contains the myriad things and transforms them with light. How smooth is the Way of Kun! It follows Heaven and acts according to the time. It receives the master later and possesses constancy; it contains the myriad things and transforms them with light."

"It contains the myriad things and transforms them with light" (Han Wan Wu Er Hua Guang)—The Way of Kun contains all things and causes them to transform and shine. This "containing" is the inner, and "transforming/shining" is the outer. The virtue of the Kun Way unites the inner (containing) and the outer (transforming) into one. This is the meaning of "the Way that unites the inner and the outer."

Mencius, Gongsun Chou (Part 1) states: "When cultivating this Qi, it is most vast and most rigid. If nourished uprightly without harm, it fills the space between Heaven and Earth... This Qi matches righteousness and the Dao; without this, it starves. This is generated by accumulated righteousness; it is not seized by aggression."

The "vast and mighty Qi" is nurtured internally ("in the heart") but "fills the space between Heaven and Earth" (outwardly). Inner and outer are unified—this is the "Way that unites the inner and the outer."

"And therefore it is appropriately applied at all times" (Gu Shi Cuo Zhi Yi ye)—Therefore, in every time and situation, one can naturally make appropriate responses.

"Time" (Shi) refers to opportunity and timeliness. "Application" (Cuo) refers to action or execution. "Appropriate" (Yi) means suitable. Since completing the self and completing things are unified, and the inner and outer are no longer separated, one can naturally respond appropriately at any time or in any situation.

This "appropriate application at all times" is what Confucius called "timing" (Shi Zhong). The Analects, Wei Zi states: "I am different from others; I am capable of nothing, and incapable of nothing." Confucius was capable of nothing and incapable of nothing—everything depended on the opportune moment, neither too early nor too late, neither too much nor too little. This "capable of nothing and incapable of nothing" is precisely the meaning of "appropriately applied at all times."

The I Ching, Qian Gua, Wen Yan states: "Vigilant all day long, one follows the time." To follow the time means moving in sync with the opportune moment, neither preceding nor lagging behind, neither deviating to one side nor the other. This is "appropriately applied at all times."

Mencius, Wan Zhang (Part 2) discusses the difference between Bo Yi, Yi Yin, Liu Xiahui, and Confucius:

"Bo Yi was the purest of the sages; Yi Yin was the one who took responsibility; Liu Xiahui was the sage of harmony; Confucius was the sage of timing. Confucius is the one who achieved the great synthesis. To achieve the great synthesis is like striking the metal chime and then the jade pendants."

Confucius was the "sage of timing" (Sheng zhi Shi zhe)—a sage who responded according to the time, adapting to circumstances. This character Shi (timing) corresponds to the Shi in "appropriately applied at all times." The reason Confucius could adapt to the times is precisely because he "united the inner and the outer"—his inner heart was supremely sincere, and his wisdom was penetrating, enabling him to make the most appropriate response in any situation.

Chapter 7: "Thus, the utmost authenticity is ceaseless"—From Authenticity to Ceaselessness

Section 1: What is "Utmost Authenticity" (Zhi Cheng)$20

"Utmost Authenticity" (Zhi Cheng)—the extreme degree of authenticity. Zhi means extreme or ultimate. Zhi Cheng refers to the state where authenticity reaches its apex, containing not a single trace of inauthenticity.

In pre-Qin texts, the concept of Zhi Cheng is primarily found in the Zhongyong. However, its philosophical foundation can be traced back to earlier documents.

The Shangshu: Kang Gao states:

"Truly remember the profoundly manifest virtue of your illustrious father King Wen, who was able to illuminate virtue and be cautious in punishment. He dared not insult the widowed and orphaned; he was diligent in service, reverent in manner, awe-inspiring in appearance, and made the people clear."

This describes King Wen's virtue—illuminating virtue and being cautious in punishment, never deceiving the weak—this sincere and non-deceptive attitude is the embryonic form of "Utmost Authenticity."

The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Wen Wang states:

"The solemn King Wen, with utmost caution and reverence. Clearly serving the High God, he thus attained abundant blessings. His virtue did not turn away, thus he received the vassal states."

"Xiao Xin Yi Yi"—extremely cautious and reverent. This is the practice of "caution when alone" (Shen Du). "Zhao Shi Shang Di"—clearly serving the High God. "Jue De Bu Hui"—His virtue did not turn away (was true and unswerving). All these are manifestations of "Utmost Authenticity."

The Zhongyong later states: "Only the utmost sincerity under Heaven can fully realize one's nature. If one can fully realize one's nature, one can fully realize the nature of others. If one can fully realize the nature of others, one can fully realize the nature of things. If one can fully realize the nature of things, one can assist Heaven and Earth in their transformations and nurture. If one can assist Heaven and Earth in their transformations and nurture, one can partake in the symmetry of Heaven and Earth."

This passage is paramount. The person of "Utmost Authenticity" can "fully realize one's nature" (Jin Qi Xing)—fully realizing one's innate nature. From this, one extends to the nature of man and the nature of things, ultimately reaching the state of "assisting Heaven and Earth in their transformations and nurture" and "partaking in the symmetry of Heaven and Earth." This is the ultimate unfolding of "to complete oneself is benevolence; to complete things is wisdom."

Section 2: What is "Ceaselessness" (Wu Xi)$21

"The utmost authenticity is ceaseless" (Zhi cheng wu xi)—the Way of utmost authenticity has no cessation.

Xi means stopping or resting. "Ceaseless" (Wu Xi) means non-stop, uninterrupted.

Why must "Utmost Authenticity" be "ceaseless"$22

Because the essence of "Authenticity" is the Heavenly Dao, and the operation of the Heavenly Dao is eternally ceaseless.

The I Ching, Qian Gua, Xiang Zhuan states: "The movement of Heaven is strong and vigorous; the exemplary person continually strives for self-strengthening without ceasing (Zi Qiang Bu Xi)."

"The movement of Heaven is strong and vigorous" (Tian Xing Jian)—the operation of the Heavenly Dao is relentlessly vigorous. Thus, the exemplary person emulates the Heavenly Dao and strives tirelessly on their own behalf. This "without ceasing" (Bu Xi) is synonymous with "ceaseless" (Wu Xi).

Why does Heaven not cease$23 Because the Heavenly Dao is "Authentic"—it is truly real and non-artificial. Real things have no reason to stop. Only false things cease because they cannot sustain themselves. The downward flow of water will not cease (unless obstructed by external force); the upward burning of fire will not cease (unless fuel is exhausted). The downward flow of water and the upward burning of fire are inherent in their true nature, thus they are "ceaseless." Similarly, the operation of the Heavenly Dao is inherent in its nature of "Authenticity," thus it is "ceaseless."

Why does only "Utmost Authenticity" lead to "ceaselessness," while ordinary authenticity does not$24

Because ordinary authenticity may still contain elements of inauthenticity. Where there is one trace of inauthenticity, there is one trace of effort or strain; where there is strain, there is fatigue; where there is fatigue, there is cessation. Only "Utmost Authenticity"—sincerity without impurity—can resemble the operation of the Heavenly Dao, continuing endlessly.

This meaning is beautifully illustrated by Mencius in Gongsun Chou (Part 1):

"One must attend to it, yet not force it; the mind must not forget it, nor attempt to hasten its growth. Do not be like the man of Song, who, concerned that his seedlings were not growing, pulled them up. He returned home exhausted and said to his family: 'Today I am ill; I have helped the seedlings to grow!' His son ran to look, and the seedlings were already withered. Few under Heaven are those who do not help seedlings to grow! Those who abandon it because they think it useless are those who do not weed the seedlings. Those who help them grow are those who pull them up. Not only is it useless, but it also harms them."

"One must attend to it, yet not force it; the mind must not forget it, nor attempt to hasten its growth" (Bi You Shi Yan Er Wu Zheng, Xin Wu Wang, Wu Zhu Zhang)—cultivation must be continuous ("not forget"), but one must not rush it ("not hasten growth"), because "Authenticity completes itself"—it unfolds naturally.

Section 3: "If ceaseless, it is long-lasting" (Bu Xi Ze Jiu)

Following "the utmost authenticity is ceaseless," the Zhongyong unfolds a series of progressive inferences: "If ceaseless, it is long-lasting (Jiu); if long-lasting, it yields verification (Zheng); if it yields verification, it is far-reaching (You Yuan); if far-reaching, it is broad and profound (Bo Hou); if broad and profound, it is lofty and bright (Gao Ming)."

"If ceaseless, it is long-lasting" (Bu Xi Ze Jiu)—By not stopping, it becomes enduring. This seems simple, but it is profound.

Jiu means long-lasting or constant. The I Ching has the Heng (Constancy) Gua, which discusses the Way of endurance. The Heng Gua, Tuan Zhuan states:

"Heng means long-lasting. Rigid above and yielding below, Thunder and Wind mutually assist each other, thus Xun (Wind/Penetration) acts through movement, and both rigid and yielding respond—this is Heng. Heng brings success and perseverance is beneficial, because it is long-lasting in its Way. The Way of Heaven and Earth is long-lasting and ceaseless. Benefit has a direction, implying that the end becomes the beginning. The sun and moon attain Heaven and thus can shine long; the four seasons transform and thus can complete things long-lasting. The sage endures in his Way, and the world is transformed and completed. Observe what endures, and the nature of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things can be known."

"The Way of Heaven and Earth is long-lasting and ceaseless" (Tian Di Zhi Dao, Heng Jiu Er Bu Yi ye)—the Dao of Heaven and Earth is constant and unending. "The sage endures in his Way, and the world is transformed and completed." Endurance is not simple longevity in time. It implies a qualitative accumulation—continuous persistence allows the power of Cheng to accumulate and deepen constantly. Just as the Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Wen Wang says: "Though Zhou is an old state, its mandate is renewed." Zhou is old, yet its mandate is constantly renewed—this "old" is "long-lasting" (Jiu), but within endurance there is "renewal."

Section 4: "If long-lasting, it yields verification" (Jiu Ze Zheng)

Zheng means verification, proof, or manifest indication. "If long-lasting, it yields verification"—after prolonged endurance, verification will appear.

What does this mean$25

A tree, once planted, requires a long time to grow (Jiu), before it can flower and bear fruit (Zheng). A person who cultivates sincerity, day after day (Jiu), will eventually manifest the radiance of virtue in their words and actions (Zheng). A state that implements a virtuous governance for years (Jiu) will eventually show the effects of education in its customs and populace (Zheng).

Zheng is the natural result of Jiu. One does not seek Zheng; one achieves Jiu (ceaseless ultimate sincerity), and Zheng naturally arrives. This is the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity"—real things, if sustained, will eventually manifest.

This meaning is well-illustrated in the history of governance. The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Zhuang Tenth Year recounts Cao Gui discussing war: Duke Zhuang asked, "By what means shall we fight$26" Cao Gui questioned the basis of the Duke's reliance. The Duke first mentioned sharing food and resources, which Cao Gui dismissed as "small favors not universally applied, so the people will not follow." The Duke then mentioned treating sacrifices with sincerity, which Cao Gui dismissed as "small trust not fully convincing, so the spirits will not bless." Finally, the Duke mentioned handling major and minor legal cases sincerely. Cao Gui replied, "This is allied with loyalty; we can fight one battle."

In this exchange, "small trust not fully convincing" (Xiao Xin Wei Fu) refers to Zheng—sincerity has not truly achieved profound verification. Only "handling cases with feeling" (Yi Qing)—dealing with lawsuits with a sincere heart—is "allied with loyalty" (Zhong zhi shu ye), and constitutes true "verification" (Zheng). If one persistently treats the people's affairs with sincerity (Jiu), the people will truly be convinced (Zheng).

Section 5: "If it yields verification, it is far-reaching" (Zheng Ze You Yuan)

"Far-reaching" (You Yuan) means deep and extensive in influence. "If it yields verification, it is far-reaching"—once verification appears, its influence is not confined to the immediate moment but radiates outward and penetrates deeper.

Once the effect of virtue is manifested, it does not stop at the present but radiates to the distant future and permeates deeply. The virtue of a person who has achieved sincerity and seen its verification spreads far—disciples teach disciples, and the thought continues to propagate, with ever-deeper influence. The virtuous governance of a state that has achieved verification (like the virtue of King Wen) has far-reaching effects—"two-thirds of the world submitted," and distant lords willingly defected without conflict.

The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Si Qi states:

"Thinking of the great mother, the mother of King Wen. Thinking of the charming Jiang, wife of the central quarters. Great Si inherited fine sounds, and bore a hundred sons."

It continues:

"Exemplifying this to the few women, extending it to the brothers, thereby controlling the state and domain."

The virtue of King Wen began by "exemplifying this to the few women" (Xing Yu Gua Qi)—setting an example before his wife. How "subtle" (Wei)! Yet it "extended to the brothers" (Zhi Yu Xiong Di) and "controlled the state and domain" (Yi Yu Jia Bang)—spreading from the near to the far. This is "verification leading to far-reaching influence."

Section 6: "If far-reaching, it is broad and profound" (You Yuan Ze Bo Hou)

"Broad and profound" (Bo Hou) means wide-ranging and deep. "If far-reaching, it is broad and profound"—once the influence is far-reaching, it becomes wide-ranging and deep.

Why does far-reaching influence necessarily lead to breadth and profundity$27

Because the deep and distant expansion of influence necessarily leads to an increase in capacity and a deepening of foundation. The deeper the roots of a tree go (far-reaching), the wider its crown (Bo) and the thicker its trunk (Hou). The deeper the cultivation of a person who has achieved far-reaching sincerity, the broader their capacity and the deeper their foundation.

"Broad and profound" in the Zhongyong has a specific metaphor—corresponding to Earth (Pei Di). The characteristic of the Earth is precisely "broad and profound": boundless in scope, unfathomable in depth, carrying all things without refusal.

The I Ching, Kun Gua, Xiang Zhuan states: "The disposition of Earth is yielding; the exemplary person cultivates deep virtue to carry things (Hou De Zai Wu)." The posture of Earth is Kun—yielding yet substantial. The exemplary person emulates the Earth by cultivating deep virtue to carry all things. This "deep virtue to carry things" is the meaning of "Broad and profound is what carries things."

Section 7: "If broad and profound, it is lofty and bright" (Bo Hou Ze Gao Ming)

"Lofty and bright" (Gao Ming) means high and far-reaching, yet luminous. "If broad and profound, it is lofty and bright"—after becoming wide-ranging and deep, one achieves loftiness and brightness.

The logic here is: the deeper the foundation, the higher one can rise. If one pursues loftiness and brightness without a deep foundation, it is "empty"—like a castle in the air, doomed to collapse.

"Lofty and bright" in the Zhongyong is metaphorically compared to "corresponding to Heaven" (Pei Tian). The characteristic of Heaven is precisely "lofty and bright": high and boundless, luminous and illuminating everything, covering all things without omission.

The I Ching, Qian Gua, Xiang Zhuan states: "The movement of Heaven is strong and vigorous; the exemplary person continually strives for self-strengthening without ceasing." The ceaseless vigor of the Heavenly Dao is both "lofty" and "bright." "Continually strives without ceasing" (Zi Qiang Bu Xi)—this is another expression for "the utmost authenticity is ceaseless."

Broad and profound, and lofty and bright, correspond to Kun and Qian, Earth and Heaven. Kun is the foundation, Qian is the function; Earth carries, Heaven covers. The two must work together to achieve greatness.

Section 8: The Three-Dimensional Unfolding of Broad/Profound, Lofty/Bright, and Long-Lasting

The Zhongyong then unfolds these three qualities:

"Broad and profound is what carries things (Zai Wu)." "Lofty and bright is what covers things (Fu Wu)." "Long-lasting is what completes things (Cheng Wu)."

These three dimensions correspond to the three aspects of the cosmos: Heaven, Earth, and Time.

• Broad and profound—Earth—spatial breadth (carrying things).
• Lofty and bright—Heaven—spatial height (covering things).
• Long-lasting—Time—duration (completing things).

The existence of all things requires space to be carried (Earth), light to cover them (Heaven), and time to complete them (Duration). All three are indispensable.

"Broad and profound corresponds to Earth; lofty and bright corresponds to Heaven; long-lasting is boundless (Wu Jiang)."

Pei (corresponding) means matching or being equivalent to. The breadth and profundity of utmost authenticity are sufficient to match the Earth; the loftiness and brightness of utmost authenticity are sufficient to match Heaven. The long-lasting nature of utmost authenticity is "boundless"—without limits or end.

Upon closer reflection, why is Earth and Heaven "matched," but long-lasting is merely "boundless" and not "matched" to anything specific$28 Because Earth has its limit (though vast, it has a boundary), and Heaven has its limit (though lofty, it has a dome). But "long-lasting" refers to the infinity of time—true boundlessness.

Perhaps this "boundless" (Wu Jiang) can also be understood to mean that once the three aspects—broad/profound, lofty/bright, and long-lasting—are unified, the resulting state transcends the comparison with any specific finite object. Heaven and Earth, though vast, are still finite things. The virtue of utmost authenticity, at its ultimate level, is "boundless"—no finite object can match it.

This meaning aligns with the Zhongyong's opening: "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature." The nature bestowed by Heaven is inherently boundless—because it comes from the Heavenly Dao, which is infinite and unending. If man can achieve "utmost authenticity and ceaselessness," then the manifestation of his nature will also be boundless, just like the Heavenly Dao.

The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Xia Wu states: "Clearly remember the future path, follow the footsteps of your ancestors. For ten thousand years and more, receive Heaven's blessings. Receiving Heaven's blessings, the four directions come to offer congratulations. For ten thousand years and more, there will be no lack of support."

"Yu Wan Si Nian" (For ten thousand years and more)—ten thousand years and ten thousand more. This is the poetic expression of "long-lasting and boundless." The people of Zhou believed that the virtue of King Wen and King Wu could last for ten thousand years—this is not only praise for the ancestors but also faith in "utmost authenticity and ceaselessness": the influence of genuine virtue is eternal.

Chapter 8: "Manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting"—The Ultimate Manifestation of the Authentic Substance

Section 1: "Manifest without being seen" (Bu Jian Er Zhang)

"Manifest without being seen" (Bu Jian Er Zhang)—without displaying itself, it naturally becomes clear.

Jian (seen) means to appear or manifest. Zhang means clarity or manifestation. "Manifest without being seen"—without deliberately making itself visible, it naturally manifests itself.

This line echoes the discussion in Part One regarding the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits"—Gui Shen are "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard," yet they "integrate with all things and cannot be left out." Gui Shen do not display themselves ("not seen"), yet their virtue is magnificently manifest ("Zhang").

This idea is richly expressed in pre-Qin texts.

The Laozi, Chapter 2, states: "Therefore, the sage manages affairs by non-action and practices teaching without words. The myriad things arise and he does not reject them; he gives birth to them but does not possess them; he acts but does not rely on his action; when his task is done, he does not claim credit. Precisely because he does not claim credit, it never leaves him."

"Gives birth to them but does not possess them; acts but does not rely on his action; when his task is done, he does not claim credit"—this is "not seen." "Precisely because he does not claim credit, it never leaves him"—precisely because he does not claim credit, his achievements never depart. This is "manifest."

The more one deliberately displays oneself, the more the displayed aspect appears artificial, not real. But "not seen"—not deliberately displaying—means everything flows out naturally, without artifice. What flows out naturally is real, and what is real has power—"the inextinguishable nature of authenticity."

The Analects, Tai Bo states: "How great was the reign of Yao! As great as Heaven, and only Heaven could emulate him. Boundless, the people could find no name for him. How grand was his accomplishment! How brilliant were his patterns!"

"Boundless, the people could find no name for him" (Dang Dang Hu Min Wu Neng Ming Yan)—the people could not give a proper name to Yao's virtue. Why could they find no name$1 Because Yao's virtue was too vast and natural, like Heaven—how can you name the greatness of Heaven$2 Precisely because he "did not advertise" his achievements ("not seen"), his virtue became more profoundly admired ("manifest," i.e., "brilliant patterns").

Similarly, the Analects, Tai Bo states: "How grand that Shun and Yu possessed the world yet acted as if they had nothing to do with it!" Shun and Yu possessed the world but acted as if they were uninvolved—this "non-involvement" is "not seen"—they did not boast of possessing the world. And precisely because of this, their greatness is even more awe-inspiring ("How grand!" i.e., "manifest").

Section 2: "Transforms without moving" (Bu Dong Er Bian)

"Transforms without moving" (Bu Dong Er Bian)—without taking deliberate action, things naturally change.

"Moving" (Dong) refers to willful action. "Change" (Bian) refers to the transformation of things. "Transforms without moving"—without intervening with willful action, things change naturally.

This aligns with "manifest without being seen." "Manifest without being seen" speaks of self-manifestation in terms of existence; "transforms without moving" speaks of self-transformation in terms of function.

What is the basis for this idea$3

Because the person of "utmost sincerity" shares the virtue of Heaven and Earth. Heaven and Earth nurture all things not by deliberately intervening in how every single thing grows—Heaven does not command every tree how to grow, and Earth does not dictate how every river should flow. Heaven and Earth merely provide the conditions through their "Authenticity" (real virtue)—Heaven provides sunlight and rain, Earth provides soil and nourishment—and then all things naturally grow and change.

The person of utmost sincerity is the same. He does not need to command and intervene in every matter; he only needs to maintain his sincere virtue, and this naturally influences the people and affairs around him. This influence is "transforms without moving"—it is not that he "does" something, but that his mere "presence" is generating change.

The Analects, Yan Yuan, records Ji Kangzi asking Confucius about governance. Confucius replied: "Governing is rectification (Zheng). If you, sir, lead with rectification, who would dare not rectify$4" He also said: "If you desire good, the people will be good. The virtue of the exemplary person is wind; the virtue of the petty person is grass. When the wind blows over the grass, it inevitably bends."

"The virtue of the exemplary person is wind, the virtue of the petty person is grass"—when the wind blows, the grass naturally bends down. This is "transforms without moving"—the exemplary person does not need to order the people to do anything; as long as his own virtue is upright and great (like the wind), the people will naturally be influenced (like the grass bending).

Furthermore, the Analects, Wei Zheng states: "To govern by means of virtue is like being the North Star, which remains in its place and all other stars turn toward it." The North Star "remains in its place" (Ju Qi Suo)—it does not move. Yet all other stars revolve around it—it does not move, but all things change around it. This is the best analogy for "transforms without moving."

Why do the stars revolve around the North Star without it moving$5 Because the North Star occupies the center of the heavens, and its position itself is the core of order. Similarly, the person of utmost sincerity occupies the center of morality; his very existence is the core of cultivation. He does not need to do anything; his being is enough to cause the surrounding world to change.

The I Ching, Appendix III states: "The Yi has no thought, no deliberate action; it is still and motionless, yet responsive, it consequently permeates the world." This is precisely the metaphysical basis for "transforms without moving." The Dao-substance of utmost sincerity is inherently "still and motionless," but once there is a resonance, it "consequently permeates the world"—the changes in all things occur because of this resonance.

Section 3: "Accomplishes without acting" (Wu Wei Er Cheng)

"Accomplishes without acting" (Wu Wei Er Cheng)—without deliberate action, everything is naturally achieved.

This line summarizes the entire section and represents the highest realm of the whole chapter.

"Non-action" (Wu Wei) here does not mean doing nothing, but acting without deliberate effort, strain, or artifice. The words and actions of the supremely sincere person flow naturally—arising from innate nature, conforming to the Heavenly Dao, requiring no intentional arrangement. This "non-action" is another way of stating "self-completion" and "self-guidance."

"And accomplishes" (Er Cheng)—yet everything is naturally achieved. "To complete oneself is benevolence; to complete things is wisdom"—both self-completion and completion of things are achieved. "Heaven and Earth take their proper places, and the myriad things are nurtured"—Heaven and Earth each remain in their positions, and all things receive their sustenance. Everything is accomplished, but not by "doing," but by "being so naturally."

This realm is described repeatedly in pre-Qin literature.

The Laozi, Chapter 37, states: "The Dao is constantly non-active, yet leaves nothing undone." The Dao is perpetually "non-active," yet nothing is left "undone." "Non-active" and "leaves nothing undone" seem contradictory, but they are unified—precisely because of "non-action" (not using forceful human effort to intervene), everything is "naturally accomplished."

The Laozi, Chapter 48, states: "In the pursuit of learning, increase what you know day by day; in the pursuit of the Dao, decrease what you know day by day. Decrease and decrease again, until you reach non-action. Achieve non-action, and yet nothing is left undone. When one manages the world by non-action, everything arises by itself; but when things arise by themselves, they are not sufficient to manage the world."

"In the pursuit of the Dao, decrease what you know day by day" (Wei Dao Ri Sun)—the process of cultivating the Dao is one of continuous reduction (removing artificial embellishments and false desires), eventually reaching Wu Wei (non-action). This "reduction" is not loss but the removal of inauthentic elements, returning to the original state of authenticity.

However, it must be noted that the Zhongyong's "accomplishes without acting" and Laozi's "non-action and yet nothing is left undone" share similar terminology but have subtle differences in connotation.

Laozi's Wu Wei emphasizes "non-attachment," "non-contention," and "non-desire"—removing artificial human actions to return to nature.

The Zhongyong's "Wu Wei" emphasizes "utmost authenticity" (Zhi Cheng)—acting naturally because one is supremely sincere, and acting without action because one is natural.

Laozi approaches from "subtraction"—decrease and decrease again, eliminating everything artificial.

The Zhongyong approaches from "fulfillment"—utmost sincerity and ceaselessness, filling the virtue of authenticity to the extreme, naturally leading to non-action.

Though the difference is subtle, it marks the boundary between Confucian and Daoist metaphysics. The sage of Laozi is like an "infant"—returning to the most primal, simple state. The supremely sincere person of the Zhongyong is like Heaven and Earth—reaching the most fulfilled and perfect state. Both paths converge on "accomplishes without acting," but their spiritual directions differ slightly.

Furthermore, the Zhuangzi, The Secret of the Art of Being True records the words of Huzhi when responding to Jixian, the teacher of Liezi: "I responded to him with emptiness and yielding like willow branches... I did not know who he was, so I let him become a follower, then a drifter, then a turbulent wave, and so I escaped." Huzhi responded to Jixian with states of "emptiness" and "yielding"—not countering action with action, but responding to form with formlessness. This is also a form of "non-action." Zhuangzi’s "non-action" lies in "emptiness"—emptying the self to respond to things.

Synthesizing the above, the three phrases "manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting" progress step-by-step:

• Manifest without being seen—Self is not displayed, yet virtue manifests (level of existence).
• Transforms without moving—No action taken, yet things transform (level of function).
• Accomplishes without acting—No deliberate effort, yet affairs are accomplished (level of realization).

The convergence of these three means the ultimate state of "Utmost Authenticity"—like the operation of Heaven and Earth, it is natural, non-active yet accomplishing all, with all things arising and being completed through it.

Section 4: The Unification of the Dao of Heaven and Earth and the Dao of the Sage

"Manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting"—these three phrases describe both the Dao of Heaven and Earth and the Dao of the Sage. In the framework of the Zhongyong, the Dao of Heaven and Man are unified.

The Zhongyong begins: "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature (Xing)." The Heavenly Dao bestows nature upon man—human nature is the manifestation of the Heavenly Dao. Thus, if man can achieve utmost sincerity and ceaselessness, he returns to the original reality of the Heavenly Dao, uniting with Heaven and Earth.

This state of Heaven-Man unity is described extensively in pre-Qin literature.

The I Ching, Qian Gua, Wen Yan states: "The Great Man merges his virtue with Heaven and Earth, his brightness with the sun and moon, his order with the four seasons, and his fortune and misfortune with ghosts and spirits. He precedes Heaven, and Heaven does not oppose him; he follows Heaven's time, and conforms to Heaven's mandate. If even Heaven does not oppose him, how much less can men oppose him$6 How much less can ghosts and spirits oppose him$7"

This passage is arguably the ultimate expression of pre-Qin thought on Heaven-Man unity:

• "Merges his virtue with Heaven and Earth" (He Tian Di Zhi De)—his virtue aligns with Heaven and Earth.
• "His brightness with the sun and moon" (He Ri Yue Zhi Ming)—his clarity aligns with the sun and moon.
• "His order with the four seasons" (He Si Shi Zhi Xu)—his actions align with the order of the four seasons.
• "His fortune and misfortune with ghosts and spirits" (He Gui Shen Zhi Ji Xiong)—his resonance aligns with the fortune and misfortune of Gui Shen.

"He precedes Heaven, and Heaven does not oppose him" (Xian Tian Er Tian Bu Wei)—acting ahead of the Heavenly Dao, and Heaven does not oppose him. "He follows Heaven's time, and conforms to Heaven's mandate" (Hou Tian Er Feng Tian Shi)—acting later than the Heavenly Dao, he still conforms to Heaven's mandate.

This realm is the ultimate realization of "utmost authenticity and ceaselessness." The supremely sincere person unites completely with Heaven, Earth, and Gui Shen; his actions are the actions of the Heavenly Dao, and what he accomplishes is the accomplishment of the Heavenly Dao. "Manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting"—this is not only true of the Heavenly Dao; the great person of utmost sincerity is also like this.

Part Three: Synthesis and Inquiry—Authenticity and Spirit in the Complete Metaphysics of the Zhongyong

Chapter 9: The Intrinsic Connection Between the Chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" and the Chapter on "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself"

Section 1: The Logical Progression from "Ghosts and Spirits" to "Authenticity"

Reviewing the two passages discussed throughout this analysis, the logical relationship is clearly visible:

The Chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits"—Uses Gui Shen as an example to explain the principle that "the subtle yet manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity." This chapter starts from the concrete (characteristics of Gui Shen, the experience of sacrifice) and ultimately arrives at an abstract proposition: "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity."

The Chapter on "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself"—Directly unfolds the full scope of "Authenticity." It moves from self-completion to the completion of things, from ceaselessness to boundlessness, from broad/profound to manifest/unseen, transforming/unmoving, accomplishing/non-acting.

The relationship between the two can be compared to that of an "Introduction" and a "Treatise":

The chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" is the "Introduction"—it uses the familiar concept and experience of Gui Shen to guide the reader toward a deeper principle: that all subtle yet real existence possesses an inextinguishable power—this is "Authenticity."

The chapter "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself" is the "Treatise"—it directly discusses the totality of "Authenticity," no longer relying on the metaphor of Gui Shen, but unfolding its rich meaning starting from "Authenticity" itself.

However, the two chapters are not just externally connected; they have an intrinsic conceptual linkage.

Section 2: "Integrates with all things and cannot be left out" and "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things"

The "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" chapter states, "integrate with all things and cannot be left out" (Ti Wu Er Bu Ke Yi)—the virtue of Gui Shen inheres in all things without omission.

The "Authenticity Completes Itself" chapter states, "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things; without authenticity, there are no things" (Cheng zhe wu zhi zhong shi, bu cheng wu wu).

These two statements are essentially two expressions of the same idea:

• "Integrates with all things and cannot be left out"—From the perspective of the virtue of Gui Shen, this virtue is present in all things.
• "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things"—From the perspective of the Authentic substance, Cheng runs through the beginning and end of all things.

The reason the virtue of Gui Shen "integrates with all things" is precisely because the essence of this virtue is "Authenticity," and "Authenticity" is the "beginning and end of things." All things rely on Cheng as the basis for their existence, so the subtle manifestation of the virtue of Gui Shen (which is Cheng) cannot omit any thing—because "without authenticity, there are no things."

Section 3: "Overflowing as if above them" and "Manifest without being seen"

The "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" chapter speaks of being "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them" (Yang Yang hu Ru Zai Qi Shang, Ru Zai Qi Zuo You)—Gui Shen seem omnipresent, filling the surroundings of the sacrificer.

The "Authenticity Completes Itself" chapter speaks of being "manifest without being seen" (Bu Jian Er Zhang)—without displaying itself, it naturally becomes clear.

These two also correspond:

• Gui Shen being "as if above them, as if beside them"—this is a concrete case of "manifest without being seen." Gui Shen do not display themselves (unseen, unheard), but their virtue is manifested in the sacrifice (overflowing as if present).
• "Manifest without being seen" is the metaphysical summary of being "as if present"—all real existences possess this characteristic.

Section 4: "Causes all under Heaven to purify themselves..." and "Accomplishes without acting"

The "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" chapter states that Gui Shen "cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices"—the virtue of Gui Shen naturally elicits deep reverence in all under Heaven, prompting them to fast and sacrifice.

The "Authenticity Completes Itself" chapter states, "accomplishes without acting" (Wu Wei Er Cheng)—without deliberate effort, everything is naturally accomplished.

These two also correspond:

Gui Shen "cause" all under Heaven to purify themselves—this "cause" (Shi) is not command or coercion, but natural influence. Gui Shen never commanded anyone to sacrifice to them, yet people spontaneously feel they ought to. This is "accomplishes without acting"—the Gui Shen do nothing active, yet the act of sacrifice is accomplished naturally.

This "accomplishes without acting" is the functional manifestation of the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity." The power of Cheng does not need to be deliberately applied; it naturally influences the world. The supremely sincere person acts without action (Wu Wei), and the world is transformed—like the North Star remaining in its place while all other stars turn toward it.

Section 5: Synthesizing the Two Chapters to See the Full Picture of "Authenticity"

Synthesizing the two chapters, the Zhongyong's thought on "Authenticity" can be summarized in the following aspects:

I. Ontology of Authenticity: Cheng is the foundation of all things. "Cheng zhe wu zhi zhong shi, bu cheng wu wu." All existence relies on Cheng; without Cheng, there are no things.

II. Subtlety of Authenticity: The substance of Cheng is subtle and imperceptible. "We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them." It is not an object that can be grasped by the senses.

III. Omnipresence of Authenticity: Although Cheng is imperceptible, it is everywhere. "Integrates with all things and cannot be left out." It inheres in every single thing.

IV. Self-Sufficiency of Authenticity: Cheng is self-completing and self-sufficient. "Cheng zhe zi cheng ye, er Dao zi Dao ye." It requires no external force to achieve it.

V. Manifestation of Authenticity: Although subtle, Cheng will eventually manifest. "The subtle yet manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!" "Manifest without being seen."

VI. Creative Power of Authenticity: Cheng is not only the basis of existence but also the engine of creation. "To complete oneself is benevolence; to complete things is wisdom." Broad and profound carries things, lofty and bright covers things, long-lasting completes things.

VII. Limitlessness of Authenticity: The unfolding of Cheng is infinite. "Utmost authenticity is ceaseless." "Long-lasting is boundless."

VIII. Naturalness of Authenticity: The function of Cheng is spontaneous. "Transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting."

These eight aspects constitute the complete picture of the "Authenticity" thought in the Zhongyong.

Chapter 10: Comparison of "Authenticity" with Other Pre-Qin Philosophies

Section 1: "Authenticity" and the "Qian-Kun" of the I Ching

The "Authenticity" (Cheng) of the Zhongyong has profound correspondences with the dual structure of Qian (Heaven) and Kun (Earth) in the I Ching.

Creative Power of Authenticity—Corresponding to Qian's "Primal Beginning" (Yuan). The Qian Gua, Tuan Zhuan states: "Great indeed is the Primal Beginning, the beginning of the myriad things, thus encompassing Heaven." Qian Yuan is the beginning of all things. The Zhongyong's "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things" means Cheng is also the beginning of all things. The creative function of Cheng corresponds to the virtue of Qian Yuan.

Carrying Capacity of Authenticity—Corresponding to Kun's "Carrying Things." The Kun Gua, Xiang Zhuan states: "The disposition of Earth is yielding; the exemplary person cultivates deep virtue to carry things." The Zhongyong's "Broad and profound is what carries things"—the broad and profound nature of Cheng corresponds to the virtue of Kun.

Transformative Nature of Authenticity—Corresponding to the Yi's "Constant Change." The I Ching, Appendix IV states: "The Yi, as a book, cannot be distant; it is the Way that constantly changes. Changing without ceasing, flowing through the six positions, without constancy above or below, Yin and Yang interchanging, it cannot be fixed by rules, only adapted by change." This "changing without ceasing" and "adapted by change" resonates with the Zhongyong's "appropriately applied at all times" and "transforms without moving."

Spiritual Wonder of Authenticity—Corresponding to the Yi's "That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit (Shen)." The Appendix III states: "That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit." This Shen is the Shen in the Zhongyong's "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." The wonderful function of the Authentic substance is immeasurable, like the unpredictable changes of Yin-Yang—this is the meaning of "The arrival of the spirits, how cannot it be fathomed!"

Thus, the "Authenticity" of the Zhongyong encompasses the full function of the Qian and Kun in the I Ching—creation, carrying, transformation, and spiritual wonder. However, the Zhongyong unifies all these under the concept of "Authenticity," giving it a more focused expression.

Section 2: "Authenticity" and Laozi's "Dao"

The "Authenticity" (Cheng) of the Zhongyong and the "Dao" of Laozi share striking similarities in their descriptions:

From this table, it is evident that the Zhongyong and Laozi use remarkably similar language and reasoning when describing the highest reality.

However, the fundamental difference lies here:

Laozi's "Dao"—is a naturalistic concept. The Dao involves no judgment of good or evil, right or wrong. The Dao generates the myriad things without taking good or evil as its standard. "Heaven and Earth are not benevolent; they treat the myriad things as straw dogs." This "non-benevolence" is not heartlessness, but impartiality.

The Zhongyong's "Authenticity" (Cheng)—is a moral ontology. Cheng is not only "true and non-artificial" (a point shared with the Dao), but it also intrinsically contains moral meaning: "To complete oneself is benevolence (Ren); to complete things is wisdom (Zhi)"—both Ren and Zhi are moral categories.

In short, Laozi's Dao is "value-neutral," while the Zhongyong's Cheng is "value-infused." This distinction marks the fundamental divergence between Daoist and Confucian metaphysics.

This divergence has profound consequences for cultivation:

• Starting from Laozi's Dao, the path of cultivation is "reduction"—decrease and decrease again until non-action. It is about removing artificial embellishments and value judgments to return to a natural state.
• Starting from the Zhongyong's Cheng, the path of cultivation is "fulfillment"—utmost authenticity and ceaselessness, becoming broad, profound, lofty, and bright like Heaven and Earth. It is about fulfilling the virtues of Ren and Zhi to the utmost so that they become as vast as Heaven and Earth.

Although the two paths diverge, they converge at the highest realm: Laozi's "non-action, yet nothing is left undone" and the Zhongyong's "accomplishes without acting" achieve harmony at the peak. For the supremely sincere person acts naturally without action, and one who acts without action must be supremely sincere.

Section 3: "Authenticity" and Mencius's "Innate Goodness of Human Nature" (Xing Shan)

Mencius's philosophy centers on the "Innate Goodness of Human Nature" (Xing Shan). Mencius, Gaozi (Part 1) states:

"Man's nature is good, just as water naturally flows downward. There is no man who is not naturally good, just as there is no water that does not flow downward."

"The feeling of compassion is the beginning of benevolence (Ren); the feeling of shame and aversion is the beginning of righteousness (Yi); the feeling of deference and yielding is the beginning of propriety (Li); the feeling of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom (Zhi). For man to have these four beginnings is like his having four limbs."

Mencius believed human nature is inherently good—man is born with the beginnings of Ren, Yi, Li, and Zhi. Though these "beginnings" (Duan) are subtle, they can be expanded into complete Ren, Yi, Li, and Zhi.

How does this "Innate Goodness" relate to the Zhongyong's "Authenticity" (Cheng)$8

The relationship is extremely close. The Zhongyong says, "Authenticity is the Way of Heaven" (a phrase originating with Mencius, reflecting the spirit of the Zhongyong), and "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature." The Heavenly Dao bestows nature upon man, so human nature is a manifestation of the Heavenly Dao. The Heavenly Dao is "Authentic," so the nature bestowed by Heaven is also "Authentic"—that is, true, non-artificial, and originally good.

Mencius's "Innate Goodness" can be understood as the manifestation of the Zhongyong's "Authenticity" within human nature:

• "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things"—Human nature begins and ends with Cheng, thus human nature is inherently good (beginning with good).
• "Without authenticity, there are no things"—If human nature were not good (inauthentic), personhood itself could not be established.
• "That which is authentic completes itself"—Human goodness is naturally inherent and does not require external teaching to arise.

However, Mencius also acknowledged that while man's nature is good, it can be "lost" (Fang)—losing one's original heart-mind. Mencius, Gaozi (Part 1) states:

"The trees on Mount Niu were once beautiful, but because they were near a large city, they were cut down with axes. Can they be called beautiful$9 The growth that occurred day and night, the nourishment of rain and dew—surely there were sprouts emerging! But cattle and sheep then grazed upon them, which is why they look thus bald. When men see them looking bald, they assume they never had timber. Is this the nature of the mountain$10 If this is true for the mountain, how can it be that men do not possess hearts of benevolence and righteousness$11 The reason they lose their good nature is like the axe to the wood; if one chops day after day, can beauty remain$12"

Human goodness is like the trees on Mount Niu, originally beautiful, but if constantly hacked away (tempted by external desires, obscured by selfish desires), they become barren. This is not a problem with "Nature" itself, but a result of the external environment and self-indulgence.

This aligns with the Zhongyong's view. The Zhongyong does not discuss the obscuring of human nature (a point supplemented by Mencius), but it states that "cultivating this Way is what we call education" (Xiu Dao Zhi Wei Jiao)—education is necessary to clarify human nature. This "education" is the practice of helping man return to his authentic nature—just as Mencius called it "seeking his lost heart-mind."

Furthermore, Mencius states, "Striving for authenticity (Si Cheng) is the Way of man"—the effort to reach ultimate sincerity is the human task. This Si Cheng is the practical application of the Zhongyong's "the exemplary person values authenticity above all." This effort is not creating Cheng, but returning to Cheng—because Cheng is inherently the foundation of human nature.

Section 4: "Authenticity" and Xunzi's "Rites and Righteousness" (Li Yi)

Xunzi's philosophy contrasts with Mencius's, advocating for "Innate Evil of Human Nature" (Xing E). Xunzi: Human Nature is Evil states:

"Man's nature is evil; his goodness is artificial (Wei). If one follows his nature—that is, his inherent liking for personal profit—contentiousness and strife will arise, and deference and yielding will disappear; if one follows his nature—his inherent jealousy and hatred—cruelty and destruction will arise, and loyalty and trustworthiness will disappear; if one follows his nature—his inherent sensory desires for good sounds and sights—licentiousness and disorder will arise, and rites, righteousness, culture, and pattern will disappear. Therefore, if one follows human nature and complies with human feelings, strife and contention are sure to arise, leading to transgression of bounds and disorder, ending in tyranny. Thus, there must be the transformation of teachers and models, and the Way of rites and righteousness, for people to yield and defer, to conform to culture and pattern, and to attain order."

Xunzi believed that human nature contains inherent tendencies toward profit-seeking, jealousy, and sensory desire. If one follows these naturally, contention, cruelty, and disorder will result. Therefore, the "transformation of teachers and models" and the "Way of rites and righteousness" are necessary to correct these tendencies. This "artificiality" (Wei) of goodness means goodness is the result of human effort.

Xunzi's view seems to create tension with the Zhongyong's "Authenticity completes itself"—goodness (Cheng) is inherent. Xunzi says goodness is artificially created.

However, upon closer reflection, this tension may be resolved.

Xunzi's "nature" (Xing) primarily refers to man's natural desires (desire for profit, sensory pleasure, etc.). These natural desires certainly require ritual and righteousness to moderate them.

The Zhongyong's "nature" (Xing) refers to the "mandate of Heaven"—the embodiment of the Heavenly Dao in man. This "nature" transcends natural desires and points toward the moral foundation of man.

The difference lies in which aspect of "nature" they are focusing on, hence their differing conclusions.

Yet, Xunzi was not ignorant of the importance of "Authenticity." Xunzi: Bu Gou states:

"In cultivating the mind, nothing is better than sincerity (Cheng); when sincerity is achieved, there are no other matters. One only holds fast to benevolence, and only acts according to righteousness. If the sincere heart holds fast to benevolence, it takes form (Xing); if it takes form, it becomes spirit (Shen); if it becomes spirit, it can transform. If the sincere heart acts according to righteousness, it achieves pattern (Li); if it achieves pattern, it becomes illuminated (Ming); if it becomes illuminated, it can change. Changes occurring in succession are called Heavenly Virtue (Tian De)."

"In cultivating the mind, nothing is better than sincerity" (Jun Zi Yang Xin Mo Shan Yu Cheng)—Xunzi acknowledges the central role of Cheng in cultivation. "When sincerity is achieved, there are no other matters" (Zhi Cheng Ze Wu Ta Shi Yi)—when utmost sincerity is reached, no other tasks remain. How similar to the Zhongyong's "utmost authenticity is ceaseless"!

"If the sincere heart holds fast to benevolence, it takes form (Xing), if it takes form, it becomes spirit (Shen), if it becomes spirit, it can transform." This progression from sincerity to spirit to transformation is almost perfectly parallel to the Zhongyong's progression from "Authenticity" to the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" to "transforms without moving."

"Changes occurring in succession, are called Heavenly Virtue" (Bian Hua Dai Xing, Wei Zhi Tian De)—unceasing change is called "Heavenly Virtue." This also corresponds to the Zhongyong's "utmost authenticity is ceaseless."

Thus, although Xunzi asserts "innate evil," he recognizes the central role of "sincerity" in achieving moral realization. His difference lies mainly in the starting point (innate good vs. innate evil), not in the ultimate goal (utmost sincerity, Heavenly Virtue).

Chapter 11: Historical Examples of "Authenticity" and the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits"

Section 1: The Utmost Sincerity of Yao and Shun

Yao and Shun are depicted in pre-Qin texts as models of "Utmost Authenticity."

The Shangshu: Yao Dian states:

"Examine antiquity, Emperor Yao: Reverent, clear, cultured, and thoughtful, sincerely humble and yielding, his light pervaded the four quarters, reaching Heaven above and Earth below. He mastered magnificent virtue to draw the nine relations close. When the nine relations were harmonious, he clarified the hundred families. When the hundred families were enlightened, he harmonized the myriad states. The common people changed, and the world became peaceful."

"Qin Ming Wen Si An An"—reverent, clear, cultured, and thoughtful. "Yun Gong Ke Rang"—sincerely humble and yielding. This character Yun (Yun, truly/sincerely) means trustworthiness, which is Cheng.

Yao's virtue began with "mastering magnificent virtue" (completing the self/benevolence), extended through "drawing the nine relations close" and "clarifying the hundred families," culminating in "harmonizing the myriad states" and "the world becoming peaceful"—order restored. This process is the perfect manifestation of "to complete oneself is benevolence, to complete things is wisdom."

"His light pervaded the four quarters, reaching Heaven above and Earth below" (Guang Bei Si Biao, Ge Yu Shang Xia)—his brilliance spread to the utmost boundaries of the four directions, reaching Heaven above and Earth below. This corresponds to "Broad and profound corresponds to Earth; lofty and bright corresponds to Heaven."

The Analects, Wei Ling Gong states: "Who was it that governed by non-action$13 It must have been Shun! What did he do$14 He merely rectified his own person and faced south!" (Gong Ji Zheng Nan Mian Er Yi Yi)—He merely rectified himself and sat facing south. This is "accomplishes without acting." Shun did not need to do many things; by maintaining his sincere virtue (rectifying himself), the world was naturally governed well.

This "governing by non-action" does not mean doing nothing, but not intervening with artificial means—because the virtue of utmost sincerity naturally produces a transforming effect. This is "transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting."

Section 2: The Sincere Virtue of King Wen

King Wen of Zhou is often presented in pre-Qin literature as the embodiment of "Authenticity."

The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Wen Wang states:

"The solemn King Wen, with constant, bright reverence he attends. Great indeed is the mandate of Heaven, passed down to the descendants of Shang. The descendants of Shang, their brilliance is countless. The High God gave the mandate, awaiting their submission to Zhou. Awaiting submission to Zhou, Heaven's mandate is not permanent. The officials of Yin are swift and alert, worshipping nakedly at the capital. When they offer their naked sacrifices, they wear the formal robes and boots. The able ministers of the King, do not forget your ancestors."

"Mu Mu Wen Wang, Yu Ji Xi Jing Zhi"—The solemn King Wen, continuously making his reverence bright. "Ji Xi"—constant accumulation. This is the realization of "utmost authenticity is ceaseless"—continuously maintaining and accumulating, without stopping.

The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Da Ming states:

"Indeed this King Wen, with utmost caution and reverence. Clearly serving the High God, he thus attained abundant blessings. His virtue did not turn away, thus he received the vassal states."

"Xiao Xin Yi Yi"—extremely cautious and reverent. This is "caution when alone." "Jue De Bu Hui"—His virtue never turned away from the right path. "Not turning away" is "Authenticity"—true and unfeigned, never deviating.

What was the verification (Zheng) of King Wen's sincere virtue$15

"Two-thirds of the world submitted to him." This "submission" was not the result of military conquest but the natural influence of King Wen's virtue. This is "transforms without moving"—King Wen did not launch large-scale military campaigns (before King Wu's final conquest), yet the vassal states changed—willingly submitting to Zhou.

The Analects, Tai Bo states: "He possessed two-thirds of the world and still served the Yin dynasty. The virtue of Zhou could be called ultimate virtue, indeed!" (Yi Fu Shi Yin). Possessing two-thirds of the world's power yet still recognizing the Shang dynasty as the sovereign is called "ultimate virtue" (Zhi De)—synonymous with "utmost authenticity."

What was the far-reaching influence (You Yuan) of King Wen's "utmost virtue"$16 The Zhou Dynasty lasted eight hundred years, the longest in Chinese history. King Wen's virtue continued for centuries. This is "long-lasting and boundless."

Section 3: Duke Zhou's Sincerity—The Incident of the Bamboo Casket (Jin Teng)

The Shangshu: Jin Teng records the famous event where Duke Zhou's utmost sincerity moved Gui Shen:

"Two years after conquering Shang, the King fell ill and did not recover. The two dukes said: 'Shall we perform divination for the King$17' Duke Zhou said: 'We cannot yet distress our former kings.' Duke Zhou then offered himself as a substitute, setting up three altars on the same ground. He set up an altar in the south, facing north. Duke Zhou stood there, holding a jade disk and a jade tablet, and addressed Great King, King Ji, and King Wen."

His prayer read: "Your great-grandson, King Wu, is suffering from a severe and violent illness. If you three kings have the duty of a firstborn son to Heaven, let me, Dan, substitute for King Wu. I, as the benevolent elder brother, have abundant talent and many skills, and can serve the spirits. Your great-grandson does not possess as much talent and skill as I, and cannot serve the spirits. You have received the mandate in the Imperial Court, bestowing blessings on the four directions, thus securing your descendants on the earth. The people of the four directions all show reverence and awe. Alas! Do not let the treasure mandate of Heaven fall away, so that my former kings may also have an eternal place of reliance. Now I cast lots before the Great Tortoise; if you grant me this, I shall return the disk and tablet to await your command. If you do not grant me this, I shall set aside the disk and tablet."

"Then three tortoises were divined, all of which were auspicious. When the bamboo strips were opened and the documents examined, they all affirmed this. Duke Zhou said: 'It is established! The King will have no harm. I, the junior, have made a new request to the three kings; I seek only an eternal end to this illness. If you await me here, you can think of this one person me.'"

This passage vividly demonstrates the "Utmost Sincerity" of Duke Zhou.

First: Duke Zhou offered his own body to take King Wu's illness—this is the ultimate expression of "to complete oneself is benevolence." For his elder brother's life, he willingly sacrificed his own.

Second: Duke Zhou's prayer to the former kings (Great King, King Ji, King Wen) was supremely sincere—"I, as the benevolent elder brother, have abundant talent and many skills, and can serve the spirits," implying he was more capable than the King, and suggesting he be substituted. Such sincerity could only come from someone supremely authentic.

Third: All three tortoises indicated an auspicious outcome—the spirits (ancestral spirits) accepted Duke Zhou's request. "The King recovered the next day." This is the realization of "There has never been one who was utterly sincere and yet unmoved"—the sincere heart moved the spirits.

This incident perfectly confirms the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." The Gui Shen are "unseen and unheard" (the former kings are deceased), yet they "integrate with all things and cannot be left out" (the virtue of the former kings still subtly protects the Zhou lineage). Duke Zhou, with utmost sincerity, performed the rites ("set up altars and prayed"), feeling the Gui Shen "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them" (all three tortoises confirmed the spirits accepted the request).

"The subtle yet manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!"—The utmost sincerity of Duke Zhou could not be concealed, resonating with the subtle Gui Shen to produce a manifest effect (King Wu's recovery).

Section 4: The Sincerity of Bo Yi and Shu Qi

Bo Yi and Shu Qi, the two sons of the lord of Guzi, are famous for yielding the throne. The Analects, Gong Ye Chang states: "Bo Yi and Shu Qi did not dwell on past grievances, so resentment rarely reached them." And in Shu Er: "If one seeks benevolence and attains it, what grievance remains$18"

Furthermore, the Analects, Ji Shi states: "Bo Yi and Shu Qi starved to death beneath Mount Shouyang, and the people still praise them today." And: "Duke Jing of Qi had four thousand chariots, but when he died, the people had no virtue to praise in him. Bo Yi and Shu Qi starved to death beneath Mount Shouyang, and the people still praise them today."

Why$19 Because of the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity." The wealth of Duke Jing was external and non-essential; the yielding of the throne, the refusal to eat Zhou grain, and starvation unto death by Bo Yi and Shu Qi were internal and supremely sincere. External things can disappear (horses die and men perish, who remembers$20), but internal authenticity cannot be erased (the people still praise them centuries later). This is "manifest without being seen"—their deeds were not magnificent (starving on a remote mountain), yet their virtue has been praised through the ages. This is "subtle yet manifest"—their subtle actions produced immense, enduring influence.

This is also "long-lasting and boundless"—the sincere virtue of Bo Yi and Shu Qi transcended centuries (from the late Shang to Confucius's time, several centuries passed), yet remains undiminished. Is this not the verification of "utmost authenticity is ceaseless"$21

Section 5: Ji Zha's Refusal of the Throne and the Hanging of the Sword

Ji Zha, a prince of Wu, was also renowned for his sincere virtue, famous for refusing the throne. The Zuo Zhuan records this in several places.

Ji Zha was the youngest son of King Shou Meng of Wu, virtuous and talented. Shou Meng wished to establish Ji Zha, but Ji Zha refused and would not accept. Later, his elder brothers successively became kings, and all wished to pass the throne to Ji Zha, but he firmly refused every time.

The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xiang Twenty-ninth Year records Ji Zha's diplomatic mission, where he observed music in Lu. His commentary on the Odes and music reveals profound insight:

Hearing the songs of Zhou Nan and Shao Nan, he said: "Beautiful! They mark the beginning, though not yet perfected, yet they show diligent effort without complaint."

Hearing the songs of Bei, Yong, and Wei, he said: "Beautiful! How deep! Sorrowful yet not defeated. I have heard of the virtue of Duke Kang and Duke Wu of Wei; these must be the ballads of Wei."

Hearing the song of Wang, he said: "Beautiful! Thinking yet not fearing—is this the eastern Zhou$22"

Hearing the songs of Zheng, he said: "Beautiful! Their subtlety is already excessive; the people cannot bear it. This state will be the first to perish."

Seeing the performance of Da Wu (Great Martial Dance), he said: "How beautiful! This must be the flourishing of Zhou! Is it like this$23"

Seeing the performance of Shao (Grand Harmony), he said: "The virtue is ultimate! It is great! Like Heaven that covers all things, like Earth that carries all things. Even the utmost virtue cannot surpass this. Here it stops! If there were other music, I would not dare to ask for it."

Ji Zha's critique of the Shao music—"like Heaven that covers all things, like Earth that carries all things"—corresponds exactly to the Zhongyong's "Broad and profound is what carries things, lofty and bright is what covers things." Ji Zha, with a heart of utmost sincerity, resonated with the music and heard the virtue of Heaven and Earth within the sounds.

There is also the story of "Ji Zha hanging his sword" (Ji Zha Gua Jian). Although the Zuo Zhuan does not detail this event, it was widely recounted in pre-Qin literature. Ji Zha was on a mission abroad and passed through the State of Xu. The ruler of Xu admired his fine sword but did not ask for it. Ji Zha knew this but, being on a diplomatic mission, could not present it. When he returned later, the ruler of Xu had died. Ji Zha then took off his sword and hung it on a tree near the ruler's grave and departed. His attendant asked: "The ruler of Xu is dead, who shall we give it to$24" Ji Zha replied: "No, that is not right. My heart had already promised it to him. How could I use his death to betray my own heart$25"

"Shi Wu Xin Yi Xu Zhi Yi. Qi Yi Si Bei Wu Xin Zai$26"—My heart had already promised it. How could I use his death to betray my own heart$27 This statement is the ultimate expression of "Authenticity." Cheng is not deceiving one's own heart. If the heart has promised, then regardless of whether the other person is alive or dead, that promise remains valid. This is the realization of "That which is authentic completes itself"—Cheng is a commitment and realization made by oneself to oneself, independent of external conditions.

This incident also echoes the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." The ruler of Xu is dead (unseen, unheard), yet Ji Zha still treated him with sincerity (hanging the sword on the grave tree). This is the spirit of "When attending a sacrifice, act as if the spirit is present"—treating the deceased as if they were alive. The sincere heart does not change because of the other party's life or death.

Chapter 12: Further Inquiry into the Metaphysical Basis of "Authenticity"

Section 1: Why is "Authenticity" the Ultimate Reality$28

Throughout the preceding analysis, one fundamental question remains: Why does the Zhongyong posit "Authenticity" (Cheng) as the ultimate reality$29 Why not something else$30

This question can be answered from several perspectives.

Perspective 1: Starting from "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature."

The opening line of the Zhongyong sets the foundation for the entire text: Human nature is bestowed by the Heavenly Dao. Therefore, human nature is a manifestation of the Heavenly Dao. What, then, is the essence of the Heavenly Dao$31

The operation of the Heavenly Dao—the rising and setting of the sun and moon, the succession of the four seasons, the growth of all things—is all "real" (not illusory, not fabricated). The most fundamental characteristic of the Heavenly Dao is "true and non-artificial" (Zhen Shi Wu Wang)—and this is "Authenticity" (Cheng).

If the Heavenly Dao were not "Authentic"—if the movement of the sun and moon were not real, if the succession of the seasons were uncertain—then all things would lack a stable basis for existence. Precisely because the Heavenly Dao is "Authentic," all things have a stable foundation for existence. Thus, "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things; without authenticity, there are no things."

Perspective 2: From Ontology.

What is "existence"$32 The existence of a thing means it is "real"—it is not false or illusory. "Real" is "Authentic" (Cheng). Therefore, all that exists is Cheng, and that which is inauthentic does not exist—"without authenticity, there are no things."

This argument seems circular (Real means Cheng, Cheng means Real), but it reveals a profound insight: "Authenticity" is not an attribute added external to existence; it is existence itself. To say a thing exists is to say it is Cheng (real). To say a thing is Cheng is to say it exists. The two are one and two simultaneously.

This idea, though not articulated in explicit philosophical language in pre-Qin times, is pervasive in spirit.

The I Ching, Appendix III states: "That which is above form is called the Dao (Xing Er Shang Zhe Wei Zhi Dao); that which is below form is called the vessel (Xing Er Xia Zhe Wei Zhi Qi). To transform and arrange it is called change; to push it forward and practice it is called penetration; to raise it up and place it among the people of the world is called enterprise."

"That which is above form is called the Dao"—the Dao transcends form. This "Dao" is another name for "Authenticity." The Dao is the ultimate reality above form, not a concrete object below form.

Perspective 3: From Self-Cultivation.

In the practice of self-cultivation, what is most fundamental$33

It is not the abundance of knowledge—knowledge can be great or small, but being human is not defined by knowledge. It is not the magnitude of talent—talent can be great or small, but being human is not defined by talent. It is not the level of status—status can be high or low, but being human is not defined by status.

The most fundamental quality is: Are you sincere$34 Is your inner heart truly real and non-artificial$35

The Zhongyong states: "To be sincere in nature is called the nature; to illuminate sincerity is called education. If sincere, one is illuminated; if illuminated, one is sincere." Here, "sincerity" (Cheng) and "illumination" (Ming, wisdom, clarity) are linked. But "If sincere, one is illuminated"—sincerity precedes illumination; "If illuminated, one is sincere"—illumination also returns to sincerity. Thus, "sincerity" is more fundamental—with sincerity, illumination naturally follows (a truly sincere person sees things clearly). The ultimate degree of illumination is merely the achievement of sincerity.

Therefore, in the sense of self-cultivation, "Authenticity" is ultimate—all cultivation efforts ultimately converge on the single word "Authenticity."

Section 2: Why is "Authenticity" "Inextinguishable"$36—A Pursuit of Ontology

"The inextinguishable nature of authenticity" (Cheng zhi Bu Ke Yan) is a core proposition of the Zhongyong. But why is authenticity inextinguishable$37 What force makes it "inextinguishable"$38

Pre-Qin thought offers several explanations:

Explanation 1: The Theory of Qi Transformation.

The virtue of Cheng is like the Yin-Yang Qi. Though imperceptible, its function is omnipresent. Although the Yang Qi cannot be seen, when spring arrives, all things sprout—you cannot stop the arrival of spring, because the ascent of Yang Qi is the natural tendency. Similarly, the manifestation of Cheng is also a natural tendency and cannot be prevented by human effort.

The I Ching, Fu Gua, Tuan Zhuan states: "Does Fu reveal the heart of Heaven and Earth$39" The Fu hexagram shows one Yang line at the bottom, with five Yin lines above—a single trace of Yang beginning to rise from the lowest position. Though this Yang is subtle, it represents the "heart" (Xin) of Heaven and Earth (the virtue of ceaseless generation), and it cannot be blocked. This is the symbolic representation of "subtle yet manifest" and the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity."

Explanation 2: The Theory of Moral Resonance.

The sincere heart of man can evoke resonance in others. Mencius, Li Lou (Part 1) states: "There has never been one who was utterly sincere and yet unmoved; if one is not sincere, one cannot move others." A heart of utmost sincerity will surely move others—this movement is not achieved by performing world-shaking deeds, but because sincerity itself possesses a power to move others.

Why does sincerity move people$40 Because all men possess a good heart-mind—they all possess a "feeling of compassion" and a "sense of right and wrong." When a person of ultimate sincerity appears before you, your inherent moral awareness is awakened—you are involuntarily moved and touched. This arising of emotion is not the result of rational calculation but direct resonance between heart and heart.

This is why "authenticity cannot be concealed"—the sincerity emanating from the heart directly reaches the inherent goodness of the recipient's mind, bypassing all rational barriers and worldly pretenses.

Explanation 3: The Ontological Explanation.

That which is real cannot be permanently concealed—this is the logic of existence itself. Falsehood can temporarily conceal the truth, but falsehood is ultimately self-contradictory ("without authenticity, there are no things"), and thus cannot be sustained indefinitely. Real things are self-sufficient ("Authenticity completes itself") and possess the inherent power to support their own existence. Over time (Jiu Ze Zheng), falsehood will eventually collapse, and truth will finally emerge.

This principle is fully demonstrated in pre-Qin political thought.

The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xiang Fifteenth Year states: "Rivers and marshes accept filth, wildernesses hide disease, fine jade conceals flaws, and rulers harbor disgrace—this is the way of Heaven." Although it suggests that "harboring disgrace" is part of Heaven's way (tolerating imperfection), such "harboring" is ultimately limited—unrighteous regimes will eventually collapse, and the Way of Righteousness will ultimately manifest.

The tyranny of King Zhou may have dominated the world for a time, but he was ultimately overthrown. The virtuous governance of King Wen may not have been immediately obvious, but ultimately "two-thirds of the world submitted to him." This is the historical demonstration of "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity."

Section 3: From "Authenticity" to "The Mean"—The Conclusion of the Whole Text

Finally, we must ask: What is the relationship between the Zhongyong's concept of "Authenticity" and its title, "The Mean" (Zhongyong)$41

The "Middle" (Zhong) in Zhongyong means impartiality, neither deviating to one side nor the other. Yong means constant or ordinary. The Zhongyong states: "When joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not yet manifested, this is called the Mean (Zhong); when they are manifested and all in accord with the proper measure, this is called Harmony (He). The Mean is the great root of the world; Harmony is the universal Way of the world. When the Mean and Harmony are perfected, Heaven and Earth take their proper places, and the myriad things are nourished."

"Mean" (Zhong)—the unmanifested state, which is the original reality of the heart-mind, i.e., the substance of Cheng. "Harmony" (He)—the state when manifested according to the proper measure, i.e., the functional expression of Cheng. "Perfecting the Mean and Harmony" (Zhi Zhong He)—the ultimate state, "Heaven and Earth take their proper places, and the myriad things are nourished"—synonymous with "Broad and profound corresponds to Earth; lofty and bright corresponds to Heaven; long-lasting is boundless."

Thus, "The Mean" (Zhongyong) is the specific manifestation of "Authenticity" (Cheng) in human cultivation and conduct. Cheng is the concept on the level of ontology (the true and non-artificial nature of the Heavenly Dao), while Zhongyong is the concept on the level of cultivation (human action conforming to the central Way). The two are two sides of the same coin.

The supremely sincere person naturally acts according to the Mean—because his actions arise from his true nature, without deviation or excess. Conversely, one who can practice the Way of the Mean must be supremely sincere—because only a supremely sincere heart can achieve impartiality.

Therefore, the two chapters, discussing "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" and "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself," while superficially discussing Gui Shen and Cheng, are actually elucidating the metaphysical foundation of the "Way of the Mean." The aim of the entire text can be summarized in one phrase: The Way of the Mean is rooted in the nature mandated by Heaven, embodied in the supremely sincere heart, manifested in the accomplishments of completing the self and completing things, perfected in the virtue that corresponds to Heaven and Earth, and its wonderful function lies in being manifest without being seen, transforming without moving, and accomplishing without acting.

Conclusion

The chapters on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" and "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself" in the Zhongyong function like the foundation and the pinnacle of a great structure. The chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" is the foundation—it starts from the familiar sacrifices to Gui Shen to guide the reader to the principle of "the subtle yet manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity." The chapter "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself" is the pinnacle—it directly unfolds the entire scope of "Authenticity," moving from self-completion to the completion of things, from ceaselessness to boundlessness, from broad/profound to manifest/unseen, transforming/unmoving, and accomplishing/non-acting.

Viewing the two chapters together, a complete picture of pre-Qin metaphysics is revealed:

Authenticity (Cheng) is the original reality of the Heavenly Dao. It is true and non-artificial; it is self-completing and self-sufficient. Authenticity is the foundation of all things. Without authenticity, there are no things; with authenticity, all things find their proper place. Authenticity is the essence of human nature. The nature bestowed by Heaven takes Cheng as its substance. Authenticity is the goal of cultivation. Utmost authenticity and ceaselessness is the highest realm of cultivation. Authenticity is the bridge for resonance. Man, with his sincere heart, resonates with Gui Shen, Heaven and Earth, and the myriad things. Authenticity is the engine of creation. To complete the self is benevolence, to complete things is wisdom; it carries things broadly and profoundly, covers things loftily and brightly, and completes things over time and space. Authenticity is the realm of freedom. Manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting.

This is the great meaning of the Zhongyong, and the essence of pre-Qin Confucian metaphysical thought.

As the ancients said: "The Dao is not far from man." (Zhongyong). The Way of Authenticity is not beyond Heaven or hidden in the netherworld; it is right here in the heart—"To turn back upon oneself and be sincere, what joy is greater!"

Looking back at the vastness of the pre-Qin classics, from the reverence for Gui Shen in the oracle bones, to the "illuminating virtue and cautious punishment" in the Book of Documents, to the "utmost caution and reverence" in the Book of Odes, to the Dao of "one Yin and one Yang" in the I Ching, to "sacrificing as if they are present" in the Analects, and to Mencius's "There has never been one who was utterly sincere and yet unmoved"—a clear thread of thought concerning "Authenticity" is visible. The chapters "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" and "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself" in the Zhongyong are the culmination and deepest unfolding of this thread.

"Manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting"—this is the highest realization of ultimate reality by the sages of the pre-Qin era. It is not an object that can be seen or touched, but it is more real and more powerful than all visible things. It is "Authenticity." And understanding this "Authenticity" is the key to understanding the entire Zhongyong, and indeed, the entire spirit of pre-Qin Confucianism.

** (End of Essay) **

Authored by the Xuanji Editorial Department

Bibliography of Cited Pre-Qin Texts

1. I Ching (Including Classic and Commentaries—Tuan Zhuan, Xiang Zhuan, Xi Ci, Wen Yan, etc.)
2. Book of Documents (Shangshu—Yao Dian, Da Yu Mo, Jin Teng, Kang Gao, Zhao Gao, etc.)
3. Book of Odes (Shi Jing—Da Ya: Wen Wang, Da Ya: Yi, Da Ya: Da Ming, Da Ya: Si Qi, Da Ya: Xia Wu, etc.)
4. Book of Rites (Liji—Zhongyong, Da Xue, Ji Tong, Ji Yi, Biao Ji, etc.)
5. Rites of Zhou (Zhou Li—Chunguan: Dazongbo, etc.)
6. Analects (Lun Yu—Xue Er, Wei Zheng, Ba Yi, Li Ren, Gong Ye Chang, Yong Ye, Shu Er, Tai Bo, Xian Jin, Yan Yuan, Wei Ling Gong, Ji Shi, Wei Zi, etc.)
7. Mencius (Mengzi—Gongsun Chou (Part 1), Li Lou (Part 1), Wan Zhang (Part 2), Gaozi (Part 1), Jin Xin (Part 1), Jin Xin (Part 2), etc.)
8. Zuo Zhuan (Duke Zhuang 10, Duke Zhuang 32, Duke Xiang 2, Duke Xiang 25, Duke Xiang 29, Duke Xuan 15, Duke Cheng 2, Duke Zhao 7, Duke Zhao 13, etc.)
9. Discourses of the States (Guoyu—Zhou Yu Shang, Chu Yu Xia, etc.)
10. Laozi (Chapters 2, 6, 14, 15, 25, 34, 36, 37, 41, 48, 60, 64, etc.)
11. Zhuangzi (Qi Wu Lun, Da Zong Shi, Ying Di Wang, Zhi Bei You, etc.)
12. Xunzi (Xing E, Bu Gou, etc.)
13. Mozi (Ming Gui Xia, etc.)
14. Guanzi (Xin Shu Shang, etc.)