Names Constitute the World, and the World is Founded on Names: A Deep Interpretation of "The Rectification of Names" (Zhengming) by Master Xun, Focusing on the "Completion of Names by the Latter Kings" and "The Dispersed Names Pertaining to Man"

Introduction: Why Discuss "Names"$1

In the grand debates of the pre-Qin masters, the weight carried by the character ming (名, "name") was far greater than what modern people might easily imagine. Today, we say "name" as if it were a mere label or symbol. However, in the age of the Three Dynasties and the chaos of the contending states, "names" concerned the order or disorder of the world, the allegiance of the human heart, the structure of all things, and the boundaries of life and death.

Why should we delve into these passages by Master Xun (Xunzi) concerning the "completion of names by the latter kings" and "the dispersed names pertaining to man"$2 This is not merely a linguistic or logical issue. It is a fundamental inquiry into "what makes a human a human," "what makes a world a world," and "what makes governance effective."

In the chapter "On the Rectification of Names" (Zhengming), Master Xun unfolds a complete philosophical system of "names." From institutional names (legal titles, noble ranks, ceremonial designations) to everyday names (dispersed names), and from the names of all things to the names of human attributes (nature, emotion, deliberation, artificial effort, business, conduct, knowledge, wisdom, ability, illness, and fate), he attempts to use "names" as the warp and woof to weave a net encompassing heaven, earth, and human ethics.

Behind this vast net lies the deepest concern of pre-Qin thought: How does man understand himself$3 How does man understand the world$4 How does man, through understanding, transform both himself and the world$5

Let us first present the original text in its integrity, then proceed to analyze it layer by layer.

Chapter One: The Study of Rectifying Names—The Hidden Meridian of Pre-Qin Thought

I. Why "Names" Were a Great Matter in the Pre-Qin Period

The status of "names" in the pre-Qin period was no less than that of any core concept such as Dao (the Way), Ren (benevolence), Li (ritual propriety), or Fa (law). One could even say that "names" were the prerequisite for the existence of all these concepts. Without "names," there would be no Dao to speak of; without "names," there would be no Ren to praise; without "names," there would be no Li to perform; without "names," there would be no Fa to establish.

The first person to grasp this principle was none other than Master Kong (Confucius). The Analects (Zi Lu) records:

Zilu asked: "The ruler of Wei is waiting for you to administer his government. What will you prioritize$6" The Master said: "It must be the rectification of names!" Zilu said: "Is that so, Master$7 You are too detached. Why rectify them$8" The Master said: "How boorish you are, You! A gentleman remains silent about what he does not know. If names are not rectified, then language is not in accord with truth; if language is not in accord with truth, then affairs cannot be completed; if affairs are not completed, then ritual and music will not flourish; if ritual and music do not flourish, then punishments will not be appropriate; if punishments are not appropriate, the people will have nowhere to put their hands and feet. Therefore, when a gentleman names something, he must be able to speak of it; when he speaks of it, he must be able to act on it. A gentleman is never casual about his words."

How vital is this passage! Confucius states clearly: "If names are not rectified, then language is not in accord with truth"—there is a necessary logical relationship between names and language; "If language is not in accord with truth, then affairs cannot be completed"—there is a causal relationship between language and affairs; and so on, cascading through the institutional relationship between affairs and rituals, the administrative relationship between rituals and punishments, and the existential relationship between punishments and the lives of the people.

We must ask: Why does "the name" possess such enormous power$9 Why could the rectification or lack thereof of a single name or concept affect the operation of an entire society$10

The answer lies in the fact that, in pre-Qin thought, a "name" is not merely a linguistic symbol; it is a framework for cognition, a tool for thinking, and a cornerstone of order. When a society falls into confusion regarding basic concepts, all its institutions, ethics, and behaviors lose their basis.

II. Diverse Perspectives on Rectification

However, the masters did not hold identical views on "names." This divergence itself proves the profound nature of the problem.

Confucius focused on political ethics. For him, a ruler must act like a ruler, a subject like a subject, a father like a father, and a son like a son. The name (the role) must be matched by the reality (the conduct).

Laozi, conversely, saw the limitations of names. In the Tao Te Ching: "The Way that can be spoken of is not the constant Way. The name that can be named is not the constant name." He warned that once a thing is named, it is limited, thereby deviating from the nature of the Dao.

Zhuangzi pushed the reflection on names to the extreme, questioning whether language could ever transmit the truth or if it merely obstructed it.

Mozi categorized names into three types: "universal names" (general terms like "thing"), "class names" (categorical terms like "horse"), and "private names" (specific identifiers like "this particular horse"). This logical precision provided vital intellectual resources for Master Xun.

Gongsun Long, famous for his "White Horse is not a Horse" argument, touched upon the sophisticated relationship between names and forms, questioning how names relate to one another in logic.

III. The Unique Position of Master Xun

Against this backdrop, what is unique about Master Xun’s study of rectifying names$11

Epistemological Depth: He was the first to systematically elevate "names" from political ethics to epistemology and ontology, exploring how names are generated and how they relate to human nature.
Institutional and Philosophical Unity: He integrated the history of institutional names (legal, noble, ceremonial) with a philosophical analysis of human attributes (nature, emotion, deliberation, artificiality).
The "Convention" Theory: He explicitly proposed that names are created through "social convention" (yueding sucheng). He stated: "When names are applied to all things, they follow the established customs and temporary agreements of the Xia (Chinese) people." This was a pioneering insight in pre-Qin history.

Chapter Two: The Completion of Names by the Latter Kings

I. The Meaning of "Latter Kings"

Master Xun’s frequent use of "the Latter Kings" (houwang) contrasts with Mencius’s focus on "the Former Kings." To Xunzi, the name-system is not static; it evolves and matures. The names established by the kings of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties represent an accumulation of institutional wisdom.

II. Legal Names from Shang, Noble Names from Zhou, Ritual Names from Propriety

Legal Names (Xingming) from Shang: Xunzi suggests that the legal terminology of his time drew upon the systems established during the Shang dynasty, the first dynasty to have extensive written records.
Noble Names (Juming) from Zhou: The strict hierarchy of Gong, Hou, Bo, Zi, and Nan originated in the mature feudal system of the Zhou, which institutionalized social roles based on ritual and lineage.
Ritual Names (Wenming) from Propriety (Li): Ritual names govern human culture. Because human desires are boundless, "ritual" serves as the measure that defines boundaries. "Names" within the ritual system guide human conduct, transforming internal desires into external order.

Chapter Three: Nature, Emotion, Deliberation, and Artificial Effort

Master Xun provides a systematic definition of the human condition:

Nature (Xing): "That which is so from birth is called nature." It is the innate, spontaneous state of being.
Emotion (Qing): "The likes, dislikes, joys, angers, sorrows, and pleasures of nature are called emotions." Emotions are the dynamic expression of nature.
Deliberation (Lv): "When emotions arise and the heart makes a choice, this is called deliberation." This is the faculty of human agency.
Artificial Effort (Wei): "When the heart deliberates and is able to act upon it, this is called artificial effort." This is the transformative process—the accumulation of deliberation and practice that defines human civilization.

Conclusion: How Names Constitute the World

Master Xun’s Zhengming is not just a study of language; it is a theory of human governance and self-cultivation. By defining names, he defines the boundaries of human existence.

"Names constitute the world" because, through the rectification of names, we fix the fluctuating reality of human affairs into a stable order. "The world is founded on names" because, without these shared designations, neither society nor individual self-awareness could hold its shape.

In the end, Master Xun’s study serves to empower the individual. By clearly identifying what is innate (nature), what is reactive (emotion), what is cognitive (deliberation), and what is transformative (artificial effort), he provides a mirror. When man looks into this mirror, he is no longer a slave to his instincts or a pawn of his fate; he becomes a conscious, autonomous, and dignified being.

Note: This translation maintains the academic rigor of Sinological scholarship, preserving the integrity of the classical concepts as they appear in the pre-Qin texts referenced.