Xu, Yi, and Jing: How the Mind Comes to Know the Way -- An In-Depth Study of the Core Principles in Master Xun's "Jiebi" Chapter

This article was translated from the original Chinese by AI. Nuances may differ from the source.

Author: Xuanji Editorial Board

Chapter One: Introduction -- An Ancient and Eternal Inquiry

Section 1: "How Does a Person Know$1" -- The Starting Point of the Inquiry

In the history of human thought, certain inquiries possess such immense force and such profound implication that they can stir the hearts of readers across a thousand years. At the very opening of his "Jiebi" (Dispelling Obscurations) chapter, Master Xun posed just such an inquiry:

"How does a person know$2" (ren he yi zhi)

These few words, seemingly brief, cleave through chaos like a bolt of lightning -- for they ask not "what" a person knows, nor "what" a person ought to know, but rather "by virtue of what" a person is capable of knowing at all. This is a reflection upon cognition itself, a foundational inquiry into the very ground upon which "knowing" stands.

Master Xun's answer is equally concise and powerful:

"Through the mind." (yue: xin)

The mind is the ground of knowing. Yet the inquiry does not end here; it presses deeper, layer upon layer:

"How does the mind know$3 Through xu, yi, and jing -- openness, unity, and stillness." (xin he yi zhi$4 yue: xu yi er jing)

From "How does a person know$5" to "How does the mind know$6", Master Xun accomplished a twofold inquiry. The first points toward the organ of human cognition -- the mind; the second points toward the inner conditions by which the mind is capable of cognition -- xu (openness), yi (unity), and jing (stillness). The structure of these two inquiries is like peeling layers of a bamboo shoot, moving from the outer to the inner, from the surface to the depths, ultimately arriving at the deepest ground of cognitive activity.

Why did Master Xun pose his inquiry thus$7 Why is the "mind" the ground of knowing rather than the ears and eyes$8 Why does the mind's knowing require the three conditions of xu, yi, and jing$9 Why, in discussing cognition, did Master Xun devote so much attention to the phenomenon of bi (obscuration)$10 What manner of intellectual world lies behind these questions$11

Section 2: The Intellectual Position of the "Jiebi" Chapter

Within the corpus of Master Xun's writings, the "Jiebi" chapter occupies an absolutely pivotal position. The title "Jiebi" means "dispelling obscurations" -- jie is to untie, to remove; bi is to cover, to obscure. The central aim of the entire chapter is to reveal how human cognition becomes obscured, and how such obscuration may be dispelled to reach the state of "great clarity and luminosity" (da qingming).

In this chapter, Master Xun constructed a complete and rigorous theory of cognition:

First, on the status of the "mind" -- the mind is the sovereign of the body and the master of spiritual illumination. Second, on the conditions of "knowing" -- xu, yi, and jing. Third, on the harm of "obscuration" -- the universal affliction of people is to be obscured by one partial view and thereby blinded to the greater principle. Fourth, on the method of "dispelling obscuration" -- guide it with reason, nourish it with clarity. Fifth, on the state of "great clarity and luminosity" -- among all things, none that has form goes unseen, none that is seen goes undiscussed, none that is discussed loses its proper place.

These five dimensions interlock, together constituting the most systematic and most rigorous epistemology of the pre-Qin era.

Section 3: The Scope and Method of This Study

This study unfolds along two principal perspectives:

First, the perspective of pre-Qin thought. Taking Confucianism and Daoism as its main axes, and drawing broadly upon the various schools of pre-Qin philosophy, this study situates Master Xun's cognitive theory within the entire intellectual world of the pre-Qin period. Our aim is not "comparison" but the discovery of "resonance" -- those shared concerns, kindred images, and mutually illuminating insights that recur in the writings of different thinkers.

Second, the perspective of high-antiquity myth and folk tradition. Pre-Qin thought did not arise from nowhere; it was deeply rooted in the myths, religious beliefs, and folk wisdom handed down from high antiquity. The concept of the "mind," the imagery of "clarity and luminosity," the notion of "spiritual illumination" -- all possess exceedingly ancient cultural roots. We shall trace these concepts back to their archaic foundations, in hopes of more deeply understanding the cultural soil from which Master Xun's thought grew.

In method, this study adheres to the following principles:

First, extensive citation of original pre-Qin texts, grounding arguments in textual evidence rather than speculation. Second, persistent asking of "why," pursuing the reasons behind every important proposition. Third, striving for depth expressed in accessible prose, supporting fluent exposition with rigorous scholarship. Fourth, strict limitation to pre-Qin and high-antiquity intellectual sources, citing nothing from the Han dynasty or later.

Section 4: Overview of the Chapter Structure

The full text comprises twelve chapters. Chapter One serves as the introduction, setting out the genesis and method of the study. Chapters Two through Four respectively explore in depth the three core concepts of xu, yi, and jing. Chapter Five discusses the status and function of the "mind." Chapter Six discusses the types and causes of "obscuration." Chapter Seven discusses the state of "great clarity and luminosity." Chapter Eight discusses the practical cultivation of "unity with the Way." Chapter Nine explores the cultural origins of "mind" and "knowing" from the perspective of high-antiquity myth and folk tradition. Chapter Ten discusses resonances and mutual illuminations among pre-Qin thinkers. Chapter Eleven discusses the relationship between cognition and the art of governance. Chapter Twelve offers a comprehensive summation.

Chapter Two: Xu -- Do Not Let What Has Been Stored Impede What Is Yet to Be Received

Section 1: The Dialectic of "Storing" and "Openness"

Master Xun's discussion of xu begins with a profoundly perceptive observation:

"The mind has never ceased to store; yet there is what is called xu (openness)." (xin wei chang bu cang ye, ran er you suo wei xu)

Cang means to store, to preserve. The mind is never devoid of content; it is perpetually storing accumulated knowledge, experience, and memory. This is the mind's fundamental condition. And yet, precisely upon the premise that "the mind never ceases to store," Master Xun put forward the requirement of xu.

Here lies an exquisitely subtle dialectical relationship: xu is not the absence of accumulation, but the state of having accumulated without being constrained by one's accumulations.

"A person is born with the capacity to know; knowing, one has memory; memory is storing. Yet there is what is called xu: not letting what has already been stored impede what is yet to be received -- this is called xu."

Let us parse the logic of this passage layer by layer:

First layer: "A person is born with the capacity to know" -- human beings possess an innate capacity for cognition. This is Master Xun's affirmation of the cognitive faculty inherent in human nature.

Second layer: "Knowing, one has memory" -- cognitive activity gives rise to memory and accumulation. Zhi (memory) here means to record and retain.

Third layer: "Memory is storing" -- memory is the process of preservation. The mind continuously stores the fruits of cognition; this is its natural function.

Fourth layer: "Yet there is what is called xu" -- yet the mind still requires xu.

Fifth layer: "Not letting what has already been stored impede what is yet to be received -- this is called xu" -- refusing to let existing stores obstruct the reception of new content: this is xu.

Why would existing knowledge "impede" future reception$12 This is a question well worth pursuing.

Section 2: Why Does "What Has Been Stored" Impede "What Is Yet to Be Received"$13

Why did Master Xun believe that accumulated knowledge could obstruct the reception of new knowledge$14 Behind this insight lies a profound understanding of the limitations of human cognition.

Human cognition has a natural tendency: to frame the unknown through the lens of the known. Once we have formed a conception of something, we tend to interpret every new instance of a related phenomenon through that existing conception. This tendency is useful in most cases -- it helps us make quick judgments and responses; yet at certain critical junctures it becomes a serious obstacle -- it prevents us from seeing things as they truly are.

At the opening of the "Jiebi" chapter, Master Xun enumerated many examples of those "obscured by one partial view and thereby blinded to the greater principle" (bi yu yi qu er an yu da li):

"Mozi was obscured by utility and blind to cultural refinement; Songzi was obscured by desire and blind to attainment; Shenzi was obscured by law and blind to the worthy; Shen Buhai was obscured by positional power and blind to wisdom; Huizi was obscured by words and blind to reality; Zhuangzi was obscured by Heaven and blind to the human."

Master Mo's mastery of "utility" caused him to be obscured by it, preventing him from seeing the value of "cultural refinement." Master Zhuang's deep comprehension of "Heaven" caused him to be obscured by it, preventing him from seeing the needs of "the human." Each thinker's obscuration arose precisely from his own cang -- his stored knowledge. It was precisely because each had profound accumulation and refined understanding in a particular area that he was constrained by that very accumulation and understanding.

This is the concrete manifestation of "letting what has been stored impede what is yet to be received." Existing knowledge constitutes a framework; while this framework helps us understand the world, it simultaneously limits the manner in which we understand the world.

The Most High (Laozi) said:

"In the pursuit of learning, one gains daily; in the pursuit of the Way, one diminishes daily. Diminish and diminish again, until one arrives at non-action (wu wei)." (Daodejing, Chapter 48)

"In the pursuit of learning, one gains daily" -- the process of study is one of ceaseless accumulation, the process of cang. Yet "in the pursuit of the Way, one diminishes daily" -- the pursuit of the great Way demands continual diminution, the shedding of those existing conceptions that might obscure the Way. This resonates deeply with Master Xun's xu -- both perceive the obscuring effect that the accumulation of knowledge may produce.

Section 3: The Archaic Origins of "Xu": The Usefulness of a Vessel Lies in Its Emptiness

The concept of xu possesses an exceedingly rich history in pre-Qin thought, traceable to observations that the ancient ancestors made about vessels and implements.

The Most High (Laozi) used the metaphor of vessels to reveal the fundamental significance of xu:

"Thirty spokes converge at one hub; it is the emptiness at the center that makes the wheel useful. Clay is shaped into a vessel; it is the emptiness within that makes the vessel useful. Doors and windows are cut for a room; it is the emptiness within that makes the room useful. Therefore, 'having' provides advantage, while 'not-having' provides function." (Daodejing, Chapter 11)

The empty center of a wheel allows it to turn; the empty interior of a clay vessel allows it to hold things; the empty space within a room allows it to shelter people. "Having" provides the conditions; "not-having" (xu) provides the function.

This metaphor reveals a profound truth: it is precisely xu that makes "receiving" possible. A cup already full of water cannot accept more; a mind already filled to the brim with existing knowledge cannot admit new understanding.

We may further ask: why did the ancient ancestors come to conceive of xu$15

Examining the developmental history of ancient implements, we discover an interesting clue: from the Stone Age to the age of pottery, one of the core techniques humans developed for making implements was "creating emptiness" -- producing interior space within objects. The earliest stone tools were solid, useful only for striking and cutting. The invention of pottery marked the moment when humans learned to make hollow containers. This "emptiness" was the very key to the implement's function.

Through the daily making and use of pottery, the ancient ancestors must have gradually come to appreciate the importance of xu: a good vessel is defined not by the thickness of its walls but by the spaciousness of its interior. This humble experiential insight, through long cultural sedimentation and intellectual sublimation, eventually became one of the wellsprings of the concept of xu in pre-Qin philosophy.

The Guanzi, in the "Xinshu Shang" (Art of the Mind, Part I) chapter, also used the metaphor of a dwelling for the mind, emphasizing the importance of xu:

"The mind's position in the body is that of a sovereign. The nine apertures each have their duties, like officials with their allotted roles. When the mind abides in its proper Way, the nine apertures follow principle. When cravings and desires overflow, the eyes cannot see color and the ears cannot hear sound. Therefore it is said: when the ruler above departs from the Way, the subordinates below lose their functions."

The mind is like the sovereign within a dwelling; the nine apertures are like officials each attending to their duties. If the mind is filled to overflowing with cravings and desires, the sensory organs -- eyes, ears, and the rest -- can no longer function properly. This "overflowing of cravings and desires" is precisely another expression of "letting what has been stored impede what is yet to be received."

Section 4: "Xu" Is Not "Emptiness": Active Openness versus Passive Vacancy

It must be particularly emphasized that xu as Master Xun intended it is absolutely not the "emptiness" of possessing nothing at all.

Master Xun stated explicitly that "the mind has never ceased to store" -- the mind is never empty; it always possesses accumulated content. Xu does not demand the erasure of all existing knowledge and experience; rather, it demands that while maintaining one's existing accumulations, one not let these accumulations obstruct the recognition of new things.

This is an active, dynamic xu, not a passive, static emptiness.

To use an analogy: a fine scholar has read a thousand volumes and accumulated rich learning; yet when confronted with an entirely new problem, he can temporarily set aside his existing preconceptions and approach it with an open mind -- observing, reflecting, and judging afresh. His xu does not mean he has forgotten his learning; it means he is not bound by it.

The Lunyu (Analects) records a passage about the Master that may serve as mutual corroboration:

"The Master was free from four things: he did not speculate (wu yi), he did not insist on certainty (wu bi), he was not inflexible (wu gu), and he was not self-centered (wu wo)." (Lunyu, "Zihan")

"Wu yi" -- no idle speculation. "Wu bi" -- no absolutism. "Wu gu" -- no rigidity. "Wu wo" -- no egocentrism. These four "wu" are precisely the xu that the Master practiced. The Master's learning was the most extensive in all the world of his time, yet he was able to refrain from speculation, absolutism, rigidity, and egocentrism -- this is the finest gloss on "the mind has never ceased to store, yet there is what is called xu."

Consider another passage from the Master:

"Do I possess knowledge$16 I do not. When a rustic fellow comes to me with a question, I am empty as can be (kongkong ru ye). I tap both ends of the matter and exhaust it." (Lunyu, "Zihan")

The Master said he "did not possess knowledge," that when facing a question he was "empty as can be" -- this is not genuine ignorance but the maintenance of an open and luminously empty state of mind. Then "I tap both ends and exhaust it" -- exploring from both sides and pursuing the matter to its utmost. First xu, then knowing: this is a vivid demonstration of the practice of xu.

Section 5: The Relationship Between "Xu" and "Receiving": The Openness of Cognition

Master Xun constructed a pair of concepts -- "what has been stored" (suo yi cang) and "what is yet to be received" (suo jiang shou) -- to reveal the core function of xu: preserving the openness of cognition.

The character shou (to receive) carried rich meaning in pre-Qin texts. The Shuowen glosses shou as "mutual transfer," signifying acceptance and reception. In cognitive activity, shou refers to the mind's reception and absorption of external information.

Why must the mind continually "receive"$17 Because the world is ever-changing and inexhaustibly rich; no existing system of knowledge can exhaust it entirely.

The Yijing (Book of Changes) says:

"Daily renewal -- this is called the fullness of virtue." (Xici Shang)

And further:

"When a path is exhausted, it changes; when it changes, it opens; when it opens, it endures." (Xici Xia)

The world is forever in transformation, and cognition must be renewed accordingly. If the mind is so filled with existing knowledge that it has lost its capacity to "receive," it becomes a stagnant pool, unable to admit the inflow of living water.

The Most High (Laozi) also offered profound reflections on this:

"Attain the utmost of xu; hold fast to the depth of stillness. The myriad things arise together; I thereby observe their return. Things flourish in profusion, yet each returns to its root. Returning to the root is called stillness; stillness is called returning to one's destiny. Returning to one's destiny is called the constant. To know the constant is called clarity. Not to know the constant is to act blindly and court disaster." (Daodejing, Chapter 16)

"Attain the utmost of xu" -- push xu to its extreme. Only by reaching the utmost of xu can one accommodate the simultaneous arising of all things and observe the cyclic patterns of their return. This resonates deeply with Master Xun's "do not let what has been stored impede what is yet to be received."

Section 6: The Unfolding of "Xu" in Cognitive Practice

Master Xun's xu is not merely a theoretical concept but a requirement for cognitive practice.

In actual cognitive activity, xu encompasses at least the following dimensions:

First, openness to new information. Not refusing to receive new information that differs from one's existing judgments. This is the most fundamental meaning of xu.

Second, reflection upon existing judgments. Regularly examining one's existing understandings to see whether they remain correct and whether they need correction. This is the deeper meaning of xu.

Third, tolerance of different viewpoints. Being able to accommodate viewpoints that differ from one's own, and judging only after thorough understanding. This is the social dimension of xu.

In the Lunyu, the Master said:

"When three people walk together, there must be one among them who can serve as my teacher. I select what is good in them and follow it; what is not good, I correct in myself." (Lunyu, "Shu Er")

Among any three companions, there must be one who can serve as one's teacher. This attitude of humble receptivity is the concrete embodiment of xu in human interaction and the pursuit of learning.

Again, the Lunyu records:

"When the Master entered the Grand Temple, he asked about everything." (Lunyu, "Ba Yi")

The Master entered the Grand Temple and inquired about every matter. Some questioned his learning on this account. But the Master's "asking about everything" was precisely a demonstration of never being complacent with what he already knew, of always maintaining a humbly inquiring spirit. This is the paradigm of "not letting what has been stored impede what is yet to be received."

Consider also:

"The Master said: 'To learn without reflecting leads to confusion; to reflect without learning leads to peril.'" (Lunyu, "Wei Zheng")

"Learning" is the outward reception of new knowledge; "reflecting" is the inward digestion and integration. If one only learns without reflecting, what one learns remains disorganized and cannot form systematic understanding; if one only reflects without learning, one is confined to existing knowledge and falls into difficulty. The union of learning and reflecting is the maintenance of balance between cang and xu -- possessing accumulations without being trapped by them.

Section 7: The Difficulty of "Xu": Why People Struggle to Achieve It

If xu is so important, why do people so often fail to achieve it$18

Master Xun provided a penetrating analysis in the latter half of the "Jiebi" chapter. He enumerated numerous phenomena of bi (obscuration), demonstrating how human cognition is obscured by various factors:

"Whenever one observes something with doubt, and the mind within is unsettled, then external things appear unclear. When my thinking is unclear, I cannot determine what is so and what is not."

When doubt dwells in the mind and it cannot settle, perception of external things becomes blurred. Judgments made at such times are unreliable.

Master Xun offered a series of vivid examples:

"One who walks in darkness sees a crouching stone and takes it for a crouching tiger, sees an upright tree and takes it for a standing person -- the darkness obscures his clarity."

"A drunkard leaps over a ditch a hundred paces wide, thinking it a tiny channel one step across; he stoops to exit a city gate, thinking it a small doorway -- the wine has disordered his spirit."

"One who presses his eyes sees one thing as two; one who covers his ears hears silence as clamor -- external force has disrupted his organs."

These examples vividly illustrate how human cognition is disrupted and distorted by various factors -- darkness, alcohol, physical force. At a deeper level, existing knowledge, emotional inclinations, and vested interests similarly disrupt and distort cognition -- which is precisely why xu is so important and so difficult.

The fundamental reason people struggle to achieve xu is this: existing knowledge and experience have become deeply integrated into our cognitive processes, forming the "default framework" through which we observe and understand the world. To break through this framework requires tremendous self-awareness and effort.

Section 8: The Significance of "Xu" as Spiritual Cultivation

Within Master Xun's intellectual system, xu is not merely an epistemological concept but a concept of cultivation (gongfu) -- it points to a state of mind that requires sustained practice and training.

Master Xun said:

"Those who have not yet attained the Way but seek it are told: xu, yi, and jing. Put this into practice: those about to pursue the Way who achieve xu will find it entering them."

"Put this into practice" (zuo zhi) -- carry it out. Those who are about to follow the great Way, if they can achieve xu, will find the Way entering their minds ("entering" -- ren, here a variant of ru, "to enter"). Here, xu is an active spiritual discipline, not merely a passive cognitive state.

The Guanzi, in its "Neiye" (Inner Cultivation) chapter, also contains a similar discussion:

"As for the form of the mind: it fills itself, replenishes itself, generates itself, completes itself. What causes it to be lost is invariably worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, and profit-seeking. If one can remove worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, and profit-seeking, the mind will return to its full capacity."

The mind inherently possesses the capacity for self-fulfillment and self-perfection, but emotions such as worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, and profit-seeking cause it to lose this capacity. The ability to remove these disturbances is the practice of xu.

And further:

"The true disposition of the mind is to seek peace and tranquility. Do not vex it, do not disorder it, and harmony will naturally arise."

The mind's nature is to seek tranquility; do not agitate it, do not disturb it, and harmony will form of its own accord. This "do not vex, do not disorder" is yet another expression of the cultivation of xu.

Therefore, the cultivation of xu may be summarized in two aspects: first, "removing" -- removing those factors that disrupt cognition; second, "guarding" -- guarding the mind's openness and luminous clarity. Removing and guarding in tandem is the only way to truly "not let what has been stored impede what is yet to be received."

Chapter Three: Yi -- Do Not Let That One Impede This One

Section 1: The Dialectic of "Multiplicity" and "Unity"

Following xu, Master Xun discussed yi (unity):

"The mind has never not been engaged with multiple things; yet there is what is called yi (unity)." (xin wei chang bu liang ye, ran er you suo wei yi)

Liang means engaging simultaneously with multiple objects of cognition. The mind never attends to only one object; it always faces multiple streams of information and objects at once. This is the mind's natural condition. Yet upon the premise that "the mind has never not been engaged with multiple things," Master Xun put forward the requirement of yi.

"The mind is born with the capacity to know; knowing produces differentiation; differentiation means simultaneously cognizing multiple things; simultaneously cognizing multiple things is 'multiplicity' (liang). Yet there is what is called yi: not letting that one impede this one -- this is called yi."

Parsing layer by layer:

First layer: "The mind is born with the capacity to know" -- the mind inherently possesses cognitive capacity.

Second layer: "Knowing produces differentiation" -- cognitive activity generates discriminative awareness of different objects.

Third layer: "Differentiation means simultaneously cognizing multiple things" -- what we call "differentiation" is the simultaneous cognition of multiple distinct objects.

Fourth layer: "Simultaneously cognizing multiple things is 'multiplicity'" -- attending to multiple objects at once is liang.

Fifth layer: "Yet there is what is called yi" -- yet the mind still requires yi.

Sixth layer: "Not letting that one impede this one -- this is called yi" -- not allowing the cognition of one object to interfere with the cognition of another: this is yi.

Here, yi does not mean "knowing only one thing" but rather "concentrating on the one thing presently being known." Though the mind faces multiple objects simultaneously, when cognizing a particular object it can focus its attention without being disrupted by the others -- this is yi.

Section 2: Why Does "That One" Impede "This One"$19

This is a question well worth deep reflection.

In everyday experience, we commonly find that when we attend to many things at once, we do none of them well; yet when we concentrate wholeheartedly on one thing, we often achieve the best results. This experience is the concrete manifestation of "that one impeding this one."

Master Xun cited the Shijing (Book of Songs) to illustrate this principle:

"The Shi says: 'Picking, picking the ear-grass, it does not fill my tilted basket. Alas, I think of my beloved -- I set the basket down by the broad road.' The tilted basket is easy to fill, the ear-grass easy to gather; yet she could not manage it because her mind was divided."

This poem comes from the "Juan Er" section of "Zhou Nan" in the Shijing. The woman in the poem is simultaneously picking ear-grass and longing for her husband who has traveled far. The basket is so easy to fill, the ear-grass so easy to gather, yet because her mind is preoccupied, she cannot complete even this simple task -- she sets the basket by the roadside and stops picking altogether.

Master Xun used this example to vividly illustrate how er (a divided mind) impedes cognition and action. The woman's mind is simultaneously occupied by two matters -- picking ear-grass and longing for her beloved -- with the result that neither can be done well.

This is a classic case of "that one impeding this one": the longing for her beloved ("that one") obstructs the task of picking ear-grass ("this one").

Section 3: The Deeper Meaning of "Yi": The Way of Refinement and Unity

Master Xun went on to extend the principle of yi into a broader domain:

"Therefore it is said: when the mind is scattered, it cannot truly know; when it is tilted, it cannot be precise; when it is divided, it falls into doubt and confusion."

If the mind is scattered (zhi, "branching"), it cannot truly know. If the mind is tilted (qing), it cannot be precise. If the mind is divided (er), it will fall into doubt and confusion.

Zhi -- like the branching of a tree, with force dispersed in multiple directions, each direction receiving insufficient force.

Qing -- like a tilted vessel, its center of gravity shifted, unable to maintain stability.

Er -- like riding two horses at once, torn between left and right, unable to advance or retreat.

These three states -- branching, tilting, dividing -- are each the opposite of yi, and each leads to cognitive failure.

The Shangshu (Book of Documents) contains a passage of supreme importance that resonates deeply with Master Xun's yi:

"The human mind is perilous; the mind of the Way is subtle. Be refined, be unified; faithfully hold to the center." (Shangshu, "Da Yu Mo")

Master Xun also cited this passage in his text, demonstrating its importance in pre-Qin thought. "Be refined, be unified" (wei jing wei yi) -- only through refinement and unity can one grasp "the subtlety of the mind of the Way." "Refined" (jing) and "unified" (yi) are intimately connected: jing is purity and precision; yi is singularity and coherence. The way of jing-yi is precisely Master Xun's yi.

It is worth noting that when Master Xun cited this passage, he said:

"Therefore the Dao Jing (Classic of the Way) says: 'The human mind is perilous; the mind of the Way is subtle.' The critical juncture (ji) between the perilous and the subtle -- only the luminous gentleman can discern it."

He attributed this passage to a text called the "Dao Jing," indicating that in Master Xun's era this passage was regarded as belonging to a canonical text by that name. "The critical juncture between the perilous and the subtle" -- the fine boundary between "perilous" and "subtle" -- only the wise gentleman can discern and grasp it. The ji here denotes the pivot, the crucial moment when a thing is about to change but has not yet done so.

Why can only the "luminous gentleman" perceive "the critical juncture between the perilous and the subtle"$20 Because this requires extreme concentration and unity of mind -- if the mind is scattered, tilted, or divided, it simply cannot detect such a fine distinction.

Section 4: Resonances of "Yi" in Pre-Qin Texts

The concept of yi was not the invention of Master Xun alone but a widely present theme in pre-Qin thought.

The Master on "threading through with one":

"The Master said: 'Shen! My Way is threaded through with one.' Zengzi said: 'Yes.' After the Master departed, his disciples asked: 'What did he mean$21' Zengzi said: 'The Master's Way is nothing but conscientiousness (zhong) and empathy (shu).'" (Lunyu, "Li Ren")

The Master's Way could be threaded through all things with a single principle -- and that principle was zhong-shu (conscientiousness and empathy). "Threaded through with one" (yi yi guan zhi) is the embodiment of yi in the domain of moral practice. Not one principle here, another there, but one fundamental principle pervading everything from beginning to end.

The Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean) on "sincerity" (cheng):

"Sincerity is the Way of Heaven; becoming sincere is the Way of humanity. The sincere person hits the mark without effort, grasps it without deliberation, naturally and at ease accords with the Way -- such is the sage. The one who strives for sincerity selects the good and holds to it firmly."

One of the core meanings of cheng is undivided singularity. "Selecting the good and holding to it firmly" -- once one has chosen the good, adhering to it unwaveringly -- this is precisely the concrete unfolding of yi in moral cultivation.

The Most High (Laozi) on "embracing the one":

"Can you embrace the one with your soul and not let it stray$22" (Daodejing, Chapter 10)

"Of old, those that attained the one: Heaven attained the one and became clear; Earth attained the one and became tranquil; spirits attained the one and became numinous; valleys attained the one and became full; all things attained the one and were born; lords and kings attained the one and became the standard of the world." (Daodejing, Chapter 39)

"The sage embraces the one and becomes the model for the world." (Daodejing, Chapter 22)

The Most High (Laozi) repeatedly emphasized the importance of "the one." "Embracing the one" (bao yi) -- holding fast to the unified Way -- is the sage's fundamental rule. Heaven, earth, and all things are each able to fulfill their function because each has "attained the one" -- attained and held fast to that fundamental unity.

The Guanzi, "Neiye" on "the one":

"One thing that can transform is called spirit; one affair that can adapt is called wisdom. To transform without altering one's vital force, to adapt without altering one's wisdom -- only the gentleman who holds to the one can achieve this. Hold to the one without losing it, and you can govern all things."

The ability to hold to "the one" without losing it enables one to govern all things. This resonates directly with Master Xun's "being unified with the Way."

Section 5: Why "Yi" Rather Than "Yi"$23

Attentive readers may have noticed that Master Xun used the character yi (壹) rather than yi (一). What is the difference$24

Yi (一) is a numeral, a static "one." Yi (壹), by contrast, carries a dynamic connotation -- it means not only "one" but "to make into one," "to concentrate upon one." In other words, yi (壹) is a verbal concept, signifying the active, continuous maintenance of concentration and unity.

This distinction is critically important. Master Xun was not saying that the mind can know only one object (such a mind would be deficient); rather, he was saying that in the process of cognition the mind must be able to actively concentrate its attention, preventing multiple objects from interfering with one another. This is a capacity, a discipline -- not a limitation.

It is like a masterful zither player whose ears can hear all sounds simultaneously; yet when tuning a particular string, he can focus his attention on that single string. He hears all the sounds (liang, "multiplicity") but concentrates on one (yi, "unity"). This is the true meaning of "the mind has never not been engaged with multiple things, yet there is what is called yi."

Section 6: The Cultural Origins of "Yi" in High Antiquity

The concept of yi may be traced to the ancient ancestors' experience with archery and hunting.

Archery was one of the most important skills of high antiquity. The key to archery lies in this: the eye must fix upon the target, the mind must concentrate on a single point, the body must remain steady, and then the arrow is released to strike the mark. In archery, if the mind wanders and the gaze darts about, hitting the target becomes impossible.

Master Xun in this text provided precisely such an example related to archery:

"Within the hollow rock there lives a man whose name is Qi. He is by nature skilled at archery and fond of thinking. When the desires of the ears and eyes make contact with him, they ruin his thought; when the buzzing of gnats and gadflies reaches his ears, it breaks his concentration. Therefore he shuts out the desires of the ears and eyes, removes himself from the buzzing of gnats and gadflies, and in quiet seclusion thinks -- and then he achieves understanding."

Qi is skilled at archery and fond of deep thought. But even the slightest stirring of sensory desire can ruin his thinking; even the faintest sound of a gnat can break his concentration. So he must block out all sensory desire and distance himself from even the buzzing of gnats -- only in stillness can his thought reach its goal.

He also said:

"Chui invented the bow, Fuyou invented the arrow, yet it was Houyi who excelled at archery. Xizhong invented the chariot, Chengdu trained horses for riding, yet it was Zaofu who excelled at driving. From antiquity to the present, there has never been anyone who divided his mind between two things and achieved mastery."

Chui made the bow, Fuyou made the arrow, but mastery of archery belonged to Houyi. Xizhong made the chariot, Chengdu trained horses, but mastery of driving belonged to Zaofu. From ancient times to the present, no one who divided his mind has ever achieved mastery.

In the culture of high antiquity, archery was not merely a practical skill but a discipline for cultivating the self. The Liji (Book of Rites), in the "Sheyi" (Meaning of Archery) section, says:

"Archery is the way of ren (humaneness). In archery, one seeks to correct oneself first; once oneself is correct, the arrow is released. If the arrow misses, one does not resent those who surpassed one but looks within oneself -- that is all."

The way of archery lies in "correcting oneself" (zheng zhu ji). This spirit of "looking within oneself" (fan qiu zhu ji) is precisely the moral unfolding of the cultivation of yi.

In the myths of high antiquity, the legend of Houyi shooting down the suns also carries the deep significance of yi:

The Shanhaijing (Classic of Mountains and Seas), "Haiwai Beijing," records: "...Yi holds a bow and arrows."

Though the Huainanzi (a work from the early Han) falls outside the scope of this study's sources, the legend of Houyi shooting down the suns was already widely circulated in the pre-Qin period.

Houyi faced ten suns in the sky and shot them down one by one. Each shot demanded total concentration on a single target -- this is the ultimate expression of yi. Had he aimed at two suns simultaneously, he would likely have hit neither.

Master Meng also told a parable related to archery and concentration:

"Now take the game of chess -- it is a small art; yet without single-minded devotion, one cannot master it. Yi Qiu was the finest chess player in the land. Suppose Yi Qiu taught two students: one applied himself with undivided attention and listened only to Yi Qiu; the other, though listening, kept thinking that a swan was about to arrive and he should pick up his bow to shoot it. Though they studied together, the latter was far inferior. Was it because his intelligence was lesser$25 The answer is no." (Mengzi, "Gaozi Shang")

Master Yi Qiu taught two people to play chess. One devoted his full attention; the other's mind wandered (thinking of shooting a swan). The result: the latter was far inferior. It was not a difference in intelligence but a difference in concentration. This is a vivid illustration of the distinction between yi and liang in the practice of learning.

Section 7: The Relationship Between "Yi" and "Jing" (Mastery)

When discussing yi, Master Xun repeatedly invoked the character jing (mastery, precision):

"The farmer masters the field but cannot serve as Director of Agriculture; the merchant masters the market but cannot serve as Director of Commerce; the artisan masters implements but cannot serve as Director of Industry. Yet there is one who possesses none of these three skills and can be entrusted with governing all three departments. How$26 He has mastered the Way. The one masters particular things; the other masters the Way. He who masters particular things manages things with things; he who masters the Way manages all things comprehensively."

This passage draws an immensely important distinction: "mastering particular things" (jing yu wu) versus "mastering the Way" (jing yu dao).

The farmer has mastered the cultivation of fields; the merchant has mastered the operations of the marketplace; the artisan has mastered the crafting of implements -- each has achieved jing in his own domain, but this jing is "mastery of particular things." There is a person who, though lacking any of these three skills, can govern all three departments -- because he has "mastered the Way."

"He who masters particular things manages things with things" -- the specialist handles specific matters with specific methods.

"He who masters the Way manages all things comprehensively" -- the master of the Way can oversee everything.

Here, jing is the result of yi. Because of yi -- concentration -- one can achieve jing -- mastery. But the critical factor is the object of yi: yi directed at things yields mastery of things; yi directed at the Way yields mastery of the Way. One who has mastered things can function only within his area of expertise; one who has mastered the Way can function in all domains, because "the Way" is the fundamental principle that pervades all things.

"Therefore the gentleman is unified with the Way and uses it to verify and assess things. Unified with the Way, he is upright; verifying and assessing things, he is perspicacious. With upright intent, perspicacious judgment, action, and discourse, all things are properly governed."

The gentleman concentrates his attention on "the Way" and uses it as a standard to verify and evaluate concrete things. Concentration on the Way brings uprightness; verification of things brings perspicacity. Acting with upright intent and discoursing with perspicacious judgment, all things under heaven find their proper place.

This passage reveals a profound truth: the highest form of yi is not unity with any particular thing but unity with "the Way." Unified with the Way, one can grasp the essential thread, govern complexity with simplicity, and oversee all things.

Section 8: "Yi" and the Art of Governance

Yi is not only a discipline of personal cultivation but also a principle of statecraft and governance.

Master Xun said:

"In former times, when Shun governed the realm, he did not issue directives for each affair, yet all things were accomplished."

Emperor Shun governed the realm without needing to issue commands for every specific matter, yet all things were naturally accomplished. Why$27 Because Emperor Shun was "unified with the Way" -- he had grasped the fundamental Way of governance, so he did not need to attend to every matter personally; he only needed to set the general direction, and specific affairs would naturally be handled by the appropriate people.

This resonates deeply with the governance philosophy of the Most High (Laozi):

"The greatest ruler is one whose people merely know he exists; the next best is loved and praised; the next is feared; the lowest is despised." (Daodejing, Chapter 17)

The finest ruler is one whose people merely know he exists, without feeling his presence as prominent. His governance of the realm is like "not issuing directives yet all things being accomplished" -- governance through non-interference (wu wei).

And again:

"The Way does nothing, yet nothing is left undone. If lords and kings could hold to it, all things would transform of their own accord." (Daodejing, Chapter 37)

"Doing nothing, yet nothing is left undone" -- on the surface nothing is done; in reality everything is accomplished. This is precisely the governance effect of "unity with the Way."

Chapter Four: Jing -- Do Not Let Dreams and Agitation Disorder Cognition

Section 1: The Dialectic of "Movement" and "Stillness"

Master Xun's discussion of jing (stillness) follows the same rhetorical structure of "acknowledging the reality, then posing the requirement":

"The mind has never not been in motion; yet there is what is called jing (stillness)."

The mind is never at rest. It is always in motion -- thinking when awake, dreaming when asleep, running automatically even when relaxed. This is the mind's natural state. Yet, having acknowledged that "the mind has never not been in motion," Master Xun put forward the requirement of jing.

"When the mind rests, it dreams; when at ease, it moves of its own accord; when deployed, it plans. Therefore the mind has never not been in motion; yet there is what is called jing: not letting dreams and agitation disorder cognition -- this is called jing."

Parsing layer by layer:

First layer: "When the mind rests, it dreams" -- when a person sleeps, the mind is dreaming. Even in sleep, the mind has not entirely ceased its activity.

Second layer: "When at ease, it moves of its own accord" -- when a person relaxes, the mind runs automatically. Tou means idle, relaxed. Even when you are not deliberately using the mind to think, it is running on its own, generating various thoughts and associations.

Third layer: "When deployed, it plans" -- when you mobilize the mind to think, it engages in planning. This is the active employment of the mind.

Fourth layer: "Therefore the mind has never not been in motion" -- the mind is never still. Whether in dreams, relaxation, or active deliberation, the mind is always in motion.

Fifth layer: "Yet there is what is called jing" -- yet the mind still requires jing.

Sixth layer: "Not letting dreams and agitation disorder cognition -- this is called jing" -- not allowing dreamlike phantasms and turbulent thoughts to disrupt genuine cognition: this is jing.

Here, jing is not "motionlessness" but "motion without disorder." The mind is ceaselessly active, but its activity is ordered and clear, undisturbed by chaotic thoughts -- this is jing.

Section 2: The Harm of "Dreams and Agitation": Why Do Stray Thoughts Disrupt Cognition$28

"Dreams and agitation" (meng ju): meng refers to dreamlike, illusory thoughts; ju refers to confused, turbulent mental activity. Together, meng ju denotes the mind's illusory and chaotic psychological operations.

Why do these illusory and chaotic psychological operations "disorder cognition"$29

This touches a fundamental issue: the mind's operational capacity is finite. Though the mind can carry on multiple activities simultaneously ("never not in motion"), when some of these activities become too intense or chaotic, they consume the mind's energy and prevent it from carrying out clear cognitive judgment.

A person who has had a nightmare often wakes shaken, dazed and disoriented, unable to enter a state of clear thinking immediately -- this is the direct experience of "dreams disordering cognition."

A person whose mind is flooded with stray thoughts tries to concentrate on a problem but is constantly interrupted by those stray thoughts -- this is the everyday experience of "agitation disordering cognition."

A metaphor that Master Xun offered later in the text reveals the mechanism of "dreams and agitation disordering cognition" with exceptional brilliance:

"The human mind may be likened to water in a basin. Set it level and do not stir it: the turbid sediment sinks to the bottom and the clear brightness rises to the surface -- enough to reflect one's brows and discern fine textures. But if a slight breeze passes over it, the sediment stirs below and the clarity above is disordered -- then not even the rough shape of things can be truly seen. The mind is just like this."

The human mind is like water in a basin. Placed level and left undisturbed, the muddy sediment settles to the bottom and the clear, bright water rises to the top -- enough to reflect one's eyebrows and discern the textures of one's face. But if a faint breeze blows across it, the sediment below is stirred up, the clear water above becomes turbid, and one cannot even make out the general contours of a face.

The mind works the same way. In a state of jing, the mind is like still, clear water, capable of reflecting external things with clarity. But under the agitation of "dreams and agitation," the mind is like water that has been stirred into turbidity, losing its capacity for clear reflection.

This metaphor has wide resonance in pre-Qin thought.

Section 3: The Intellectual Lineage and Resonances of the "Basin of Water" Metaphor

Master Xun's "basin of water" metaphor was not without precedent in pre-Qin texts.

The Most High (Laozi) said:

"Who can make the turbid clear by stilling it gradually$30" (Daodejing, Chapter 15)

Who can let turbid water, through stillness, gradually become clear$31 This rhetorical question directly corresponds to the core meaning of Master Xun's basin metaphor -- jing can turn muddy water clear, just as jing can restore the mind from confusion to clarity.

And again:

"Clarity and stillness are the standard of the realm." (Daodejing, Chapter 45)

Clarity and stillness constitute the standard of the realm. When the mind achieves clarity and stillness, it becomes a reliable standard for judging right from wrong and knowing things truly.

The Zhuangzi, in the "Tiandao" (The Way of Heaven) chapter, contains a similar discussion:

"When water is still, it clearly mirrors the eyebrows and whiskers; its level surface is so precise that the master carpenter takes it as his standard. If water at rest is so bright, how much more so the human spirit! The sage's mind is still -- it is the mirror of heaven and earth, the looking-glass of all things."

Water at rest can clearly reflect eyebrows and whiskers; its level surface can serve as a standard for the master carpenter. If even still water is so luminous, how much more so the human spirit! The sage's mind is still, and therefore it is the mirror of heaven and earth, the looking-glass of all things.

"The mirror of heaven and earth, the looking-glass of all things" -- this harmonizes beautifully with Master Xun's "sitting in one's chamber yet seeing to the four seas, dwelling in the present yet discoursing on the remote." The mind in a state of jing reaches the apex of its cognitive power, capable of reflecting heaven, earth, and all things.

Master Zhuang further said:

"Emptiness leads to stillness, stillness to appropriate movement, appropriate movement to attainment." (Zhuangzi, "Tiandao")

Xu leads to jing; jing generates the right kind of movement; the right movement leads to attainment. This sequence of xu -- jing -- movement -- attainment shares a deep structural resonance with Master Xun's "xu, yi, and jing."

Section 4: The Dialectical Relationship Between "Jing" and "Movement"

The most profound dimension of Master Xun's concept of jing is this: jing does not exclude movement; indeed, jing exists for the sake of better movement.

"When deployed, it plans" -- when the mind is mobilized for thought, it engages in planning. This purposeful, directed "planning" (mou) is the positive form of movement.

The question is not whether the mind is active but whether its activity is ordered. Disordered activity (dreams and agitation) is what must be excluded; ordered activity (planning) is what must be preserved and deployed. The function of jing is precisely to exclude disordered activity, creating the conditions for ordered activity.

The Yijing says:

"Heaven moves with vigor; the gentleman thereby strives ceaselessly." (Yijing, Hexagram Qian, "Xiang")

"The disposition of the earth is receptive; the gentleman thereby supports all things with generous virtue." (Yijing, Hexagram Kun, "Xiang")

The movement of heaven is vigorous and ceaseless -- this is the most fundamental "movement." The character of earth is thick and still -- this is the most fundamental "stillness." Heaven moves and earth is still; movement and stillness complement each other, and all things are thereby nurtured. Likewise, the jing of the mind does not aim to extinguish its movement but to make its movement more vigorous, clear, and orderly.

In pre-Qin thought there is a profoundly important idea: the highest form of movement arises from the deepest stillness.

The Most High (Laozi) said:

"The heavy is the root of the light; the still is the master of the restless." (Daodejing, Chapter 26)

Stillness is the master of restlessness. Only the person who is inwardly still can make correct judgments and take right action in the face of a complex external world.

And again:

"Stillness overcomes restlessness; cold overcomes heat. Clarity and stillness are the standard of the realm." (Daodejing, Chapter 45)

Stillness overcomes restlessness -- not because the force of stillness suppresses the force of restlessness, but because stillness provides a stable foundation from which all action can proceed with composure, precision, and effectiveness.

Section 5: The Cultivation and Practice of "Jing"

Master Xun said:

"Those who have not yet attained the Way but seek it are told: xu, yi, and jing. Put this into practice: ... those about to contemplate the Way who achieve jing will be perspicacious."

Those who are about to contemplate the great Way, if they can achieve jing, will become perspicacious -- cha (perspicacity) is the highest fruit of cognitive activity. Jing is the necessary condition for attaining cha.

How is the cultivation of jing to be practiced$32 Master Xun provided a general direction:

"Therefore, guide it with principle (li), nourish it with clarity (qing), and let nothing tip it over -- then it will suffice to determine right and wrong and resolve doubts."

First, "guide it with principle" -- use reason to guide the mind. When the mind is filled with sound principles, it is not easily led astray by stray thoughts.

Second, "nourish it with clarity" -- cultivate the mind with purity. Qing (purity) is the prerequisite and foundation of jing.

Third, "let nothing tip it over" -- allow no external thing to upset the mind's equilibrium. The character qing ("tip over") is critically important here -- it implies that the mind's stability is like the balance of a vessel; once tipped by external force, equilibrium is lost.

Having accomplished these three, the mind "suffices to determine right and wrong and resolve doubts" -- it can judge right from wrong and decide difficult cases.

Conversely:

"If a trifling thing draws it away, its uprightness shifts outward, its interior tips over, and it no longer suffices even to determine rough principles."

If drawn aside by some trifling external thing, the mind's uprightness shifts outward and its interior loses balance; then it cannot even judge crude and obvious truths, let alone subtle ones.

"A trifling thing draws it away" -- this is the greatest threat to jing. Not great events or great upheavals, but those seemingly inconsequential "trifling things" -- a tiny desire, a passing thought, a bit of irrelevant business -- suffice to disrupt the mind's stillness and strip it of its capacity for judgment.

The Guanzi, "Neiye" chapter also offered a brilliant discussion of this:

"The life of all human beings: Heaven contributes its vital essence, Earth contributes its form; these combine to make the person. When they are harmonized, life arises; when they are not harmonized, life does not arise. Examine the way of harmony: its essence cannot be seen, its signs cannot be perceived. Balance, uprightness, and composure -- governance lies in the mind. Thereby one achieves long life. When anger and resentment lose their measure, make a plan for them. Regulate the five desires, expel the two evils. Neither delighting nor raging -- balance, uprightness, and composure."

Human life arises from the harmonious union of Heaven's vital essence and Earth's form. To maintain this vital harmony, the key lies in the mind's "balance and uprightness" -- being impartial, composed, and serene. Emotions such as anger, the five desires, delight, and rage, if unregulated, destroy the mind's equilibrium and thereby destroy life's harmony.

And further:

"The Way has no root, no stem, no leaf, no blossom. All things live by it; all things are completed by it. It is named the Way. ... Being able to be upright and still, one can then be settled. When the mind is settled within, the ears and eyes are keen, the four limbs are strong -- such a one can become the dwelling-place of vital essence."

The ability to achieve "uprightness" (zheng) and "stillness" (jing) leads to "settledness" (ding). When the mind is settled within, the ears and eyes are keen and the four limbs are strong -- this is the dwelling-place of vital essence. The cultivation sequence of zheng -- jing -- ding corresponds structurally to Master Xun's "xu, yi, and jing."

Section 6: "Jing" and the Ancient Tradition of Sacrifice

The concept of jing has deep roots in the culture of high antiquity, particularly in its close association with the tradition of sacrifice.

When the ancient ancestors performed sacrifices, they observed a series of requirements for "purification and abstinence" (zhaijie). The Liji (Book of Rites), in the "Jiyi" (Meaning of Sacrifice) section, says:

"Inner purification is concentrated within; outer purification is dispersed without. During the days of purification, one contemplates the person's dwelling-place, contemplates his laughter and speech, contemplates his aims, contemplates his pleasures, contemplates his preferences. After three days of purification, one sees the one for whom one purifies."

The process of purification consists of excluding external disturbances and concentrating the mind, ultimately attaining the ability to "see" the object of sacrifice. This "seeing" is not physical sight but spiritual communion.

The most essential requirement of purification is jing -- stilling the mind, stilling the body, dwelling in stillness. In a quiet environment, one eliminates all stray thoughts and concentrates the mind upon the object of sacrifice. Only by achieving sufficient jing can one communicate with the spirits.

This experience of jing in sacrificial practice may be regarded as one of the cultural roots of the philosophically significant concept of jing. Through the practice of purification and sacrifice, the ancient ancestors experienced the enhancement of spiritual perceptive power through jing; this experience was gradually refined into a universal cognitive principle -- the mind needs jing to perceive things clearly.

The Yijing, "Xici Shang," says:

"In utter stillness and without movement, through resonance it penetrates all the affairs of the world." (ji ran bu dong, gan er sui tong tianxia zhi gu)

"Utter stillness and without movement" -- this is the state of supreme jing. In supreme stillness, once resonance arises, it can penetrate the principles of all things under heaven. "Utter stillness and without movement" is jing at its zenith; "through resonance it penetrates" is the supreme exercise of the cognitive capacity that jing makes possible.

This passage reveals the deep relationship between jing and knowing: it is not "movement" that produces "knowing" but "stillness" that makes "knowing" possible. In a state of supreme stillness, the mind's perceptive capacity reaches its maximum, and every resonance can be accurately received and understood.

Section 7: "Jing" and "Clarity and Luminosity"

Master Xun designated the combined effect of xu, yi, and jing as "great clarity and luminosity" (da qingming):

"Xu, yi, and jing -- this is called great clarity and luminosity."

Qing -- the purity that remains after all impurities have been removed. Ming -- brilliance, lucidity, penetrating insight. Da qingming -- the ultimate purity and insight.

"Clarity and luminosity" is not merely a description of a cognitive state but a concept bearing rich cultural significance.

In the tradition of high antiquity, ming was closely associated with shen (spirit). The Yijing, "Xici Shang," says:

"What is unfathomable in the interplay of yin and yang is called spirit (shen)."

Shen is a subtle force that transcends ordinary human cognition. And ming is the cognitive capacity that can perceive this subtle force. When the mind attains the state of "great clarity and luminosity," it possesses the power of shenming (spiritual illumination) -- the ability to perceive every subtlety.

Master Xun then described the cognitive capacities attainable in the state of "great clarity and luminosity":

"Among all things, none that has form goes unseen; none that is seen goes undiscussed; none that is discussed loses its proper place. Sitting in one's chamber, one sees to the four seas; dwelling in the present, one discourses on the remote. Surveying all things broadly, one knows their true nature; comparing and examining order and disorder, one comprehends their principles; weaving the warp and weft of heaven and earth, one assigns each thing its proper function; cutting and dividing the great pattern, the entire cosmos is set in order."

This passage depicts an awe-inspiring vision: in the state of "great clarity and luminosity," everything that has form can be seen; everything seen can be discussed; everything discussed finds its proper place. Sitting in one's room, one can comprehend what lies at the four seas; living in the present, one can discourse on the distant past. Surveying all things broadly, one knows their true nature; comparing the experiences of order and disorder, one comprehends the principles of governance; weaving the warp and weft of heaven and earth, one assigns each thing its proper function; carving out the great patterns of reason, the entire cosmos is set in order.

This is nearly a description of omniscience -- yet Master Xun insisted that this was not a supernatural power but a natural capacity of the mind under the conditions of xu, yi, and jing. The mind inherently possesses this cognitive potential; it is merely obstructed by bi (obscuration) in ordinary circumstances, unable to manifest. Once the obscuration is removed, the mind's innate capacity naturally unfolds.

Chapter Five: The Mind Is the Sovereign of the Body -- The Status and Function of the Mind

Section 1: The Mind as Master of the Body

Master Xun offered an extraordinarily solemn characterization of the mind's status:

"The mind is the sovereign of the body and the master of spiritual illumination; it issues commands and receives commands from nothing." (xin zhe, xing zhi jun ye, er shenming zhi zhu ye, chu ling er wu suo shou ling)

Each of these three statements contains immensely rich significance.

"The mind is the sovereign of the body" -- the mind is the ruler of the body. In pre-Qin thought, "sovereign" (jun) signified not merely the title of a ruler but the supreme authority of governance. All bodily activities -- walking, speaking, seeing, hearing, moving, stopping -- are directed and commanded by the mind.

"And the master of spiritual illumination" -- the mind is the master of shenming. Shenming here carries two layers of meaning: first, it is a comprehensive term for all mental activity, including thought, judgment, imagination, and emotion; second, it denotes the highest state that the spirit can attain -- the cognitive power to perceive the finest details and see through to the essence of things.

"It issues commands and receives commands from nothing" -- the mind issues commands but accepts no external commands. This is the fundamental hallmark of the mind's sovereignty -- it is autonomous and self-governing, subject to no external compulsion.

Section 2: The Autonomy of the Mind

Master Xun further elaborated on the mind's autonomy:

"It forbids itself, drives itself, takes from itself, gives to itself, acts of itself, stops of itself."

The mind forbids itself, drives itself, deprives itself, acquires for itself, acts on its own, and ceases on its own. These six instances of "itself" (zi) emphatically underscore the mind's complete autonomy -- all the mind's activities are self-initiated and self-determined, not determined by external forces.

This is a philosophical proposition of the utmost magnitude. It means that human cognition and volition are ultimately in one's own hands. The external world may affect the body, but it cannot compel the mind.

"The mouth can be coerced into silence or speech; the body can be coerced into bending or stretching; but the mind cannot be coerced into changing its convictions. What it affirms, it accepts; what it denies, it rejects."

The mouth can be threatened into silence or forced to speak; the body can be forced to bend or stretch; but the mind cannot be coerced into changing its convictions. What the mind deems right it accepts; what it deems wrong it refuses.

Here is a "why" worth pondering: why can the mouth and body be "coerced" while the mind cannot$1

The answer lies in this: the mouth and body are material; they exist in the external world and can be acted upon by external forces. The mind is spiritual; it exists in the inner world, beyond the direct reach of external forces. You can use a blade to force a person to kneel (the body can be coerced); you can use intimidation to silence someone (the mouth can be coerced); but you cannot use any external means to compel a person to genuinely agree with your viewpoint (the mind cannot be coerced).

This insight has wide resonance in pre-Qin thought.

The Lunyu records the Master's words:

"The commander of three armies may be captured, but the will of a common man cannot be taken from him." (Lunyu, "Zihan")

The commander of a great host may be seized, but the will of an ordinary person cannot be taken. Zhi (will) is the mind's direction and determination. This is fully consistent with Master Xun's "the mind cannot be coerced into changing its convictions."

Master Meng said:

"Dwell in the widest dwelling under heaven, stand in the most correct position under heaven, walk the greatest Way under heaven. When achieving one's aims, walk the Way alongside the people; when failing to achieve them, walk the Way alone. Wealth and honor cannot corrupt, poverty and lowliness cannot sway, might and force cannot bend -- such a one is called a great man." (Mengzi, "Teng Wen Gong Xia")

Wealth and honor cannot corrupt, poverty and lowliness cannot sway, might and force cannot bend -- this is the concrete embodiment of "the mind cannot be coerced into changing its convictions" in the domain of moral character.

Section 3: The Mind's "Capacity" and "Choosing"

Master Xun continued:

"Therefore it is said: the mind is capacious; its choosing is without external prohibition; its choosing must naturally manifest; the things it faces are mixed and manifold; yet its ultimate inclination is undivided."

Several key terms require explanation:

"The mind is capacious" (xin rong) -- the mind has the capacity to contain. Its capacity is enormous; it can receive all manner of information and objects.

"Its choosing is without external prohibition" -- the mind's choices face no external constraint. It can freely choose what to accept and what to reject.

"Its choosing must naturally manifest" -- the mind's choices will inevitably show themselves. Whatever you truly affirm or reject in your mind will eventually manifest in your words and actions.

"The things it faces are mixed and manifold" -- the objects the mind faces are diverse and wide-ranging.

"Yet its ultimate inclination is undivided" -- but the mind's deepest tendency is never split.

This passage reveals a deep feature of the mind: though the mind faces manifold objects ("things mixed and manifold"), at the most fundamental level it has a unified direction ("its ultimate inclination is undivided"). This is the inner ground of yi -- the mind naturally tends toward unity and concentration; it is merely that this natural tendency is frequently disrupted by the "mixed and manifold" external world.

There is also an important insight here: "its choosing must naturally manifest." The mind's true state cannot be concealed. No matter how you disguise yourself, your true convictions and will inevitably reveal themselves through one channel or another.

The Daxue (Great Learning) offered a profound discussion of this:

"What is meant by 'making one's intentions sincere' is this: do not deceive yourself. As you loathe a foul smell, as you delight in a beautiful sight -- this is called self-contentment. Therefore the gentleman must be watchful over himself when alone. The petty person in private does all manner of wrong; upon seeing the gentleman, he hastily conceals his faults and displays his virtues. Yet others see him as clearly as if they could see his lungs and liver -- so what use is concealment$2 This is what is meant by: what is genuine within will manifest without. Therefore the gentleman must be watchful over himself when alone."

The mind's true state inevitably manifests outwardly -- "what is genuine within manifests without" (cheng yu zhong, xing yu wai). Others see you as clearly as if they could see your lungs and liver. This is fully consistent with Master Xun's observation that "its choosing must naturally manifest."

Section 4: The Concept of "Mind" in Pre-Qin Thought

"Mind" (xin) occupies an absolutely central position in pre-Qin thought. Virtually all pre-Qin thinkers devoted deep reflection to it.

The Master's theory of the mind:

Though the Master did not frequently use the character xin directly, many of his core concepts -- ren (humaneness), li (ritual propriety), xue (learning), si (reflection) -- were intimately connected with the mind.

"Is humaneness truly far away$3 If I desire humaneness, humaneness is already here." (Lunyu, "Shu Er")

Humaneness is not remote; the moment one's mind desires it, it arrives. This shows that the ground of ren is in the mind; the mind's intention directly determines the direction of moral practice.

"Practicing humaneness depends on oneself -- does it depend on others$4" (Lunyu, "Yan Yuan")

The practice of humaneness depends entirely on oneself (the mind's determination), not on others. This is consistent with Master Xun's "the mind cannot be coerced into changing its convictions."

Master Meng's theory of the mind:

Master Meng was the culminating figure of pre-Qin "mind-learning." He proposed the famous "four sprouts of the mind" (si duan):

"The feeling of commiseration is the sprout of humaneness; the feeling of shame is the sprout of righteousness; the feeling of deference is the sprout of ritual propriety; the sense of right and wrong is the sprout of wisdom. A person's possession of these four sprouts is like his possession of four limbs." (Mengzi, "Gongsun Chou Shang")

The mind innately possesses the germs of humaneness, righteousness, ritual propriety, and wisdom (the four sprouts); these are what make a human being human.

Master Meng also said:

"The office of the mind is thinking. Thinking, one attains it; not thinking, one does not. This is what Heaven has given us. If one first establishes the greater part, the lesser parts cannot usurp it. This alone makes a great person." (Mengzi, "Gaozi Shang")

The mind's function is to think. First establish the mind's leadership (the "greater part"), and the senses (the "lesser parts") cannot disturb it.

This directly echoes Master Xun's "the mind is the sovereign of the body" -- the mind is the master, the senses are subordinate; when the mind is established, the person is upright; when the mind is in disorder, the person is in disorder.

The Guanzi on the mind:

The Guanzi, in the "Xinshu Shang" chapter, contains a passage remarkably close to Master Xun's:

"The mind's position in the body is that of a sovereign. The nine apertures each have their duties, like officials with their allotted roles. When the mind abides in its proper Way, the nine apertures follow principle. When cravings and desires overflow, the eyes cannot see color and the ears cannot hear sound. Therefore it is said: when the ruler above departs from the Way, the subordinates below lose their functions. Do not run in place of the horse -- let it exert its own strength. Do not fly in place of the bird -- let it use its own wings. Do not move ahead of things -- observe their patterns first."

The mind's position in the body is like the sovereign's position in the state. The nine apertures each have their functions, like officials with their assigned duties. When the mind follows the proper Way, the nine apertures each function according to principle. But if cravings fill the mind, the eyes cannot see and the ears cannot hear -- when the ruler above departs from the Way, the subordinates below lose their functions.

This passage is strikingly similar to Master Xun's theory of the mind -- both liken the mind to a sovereign and the senses to officials, both emphasizing the mind's position of mastery.

Section 5: The Mind and "Spiritual Illumination"

Master Xun said the mind is "the master of spiritual illumination" (shenming zhi zhu). This concept of shenming has exceedingly deep cultural roots in pre-Qin thought.

The character shen in high antiquity originally denoted the subtle forces in heaven and earth that transcend ordinary human understanding. The Yijing, "Xici Shang," says:

"What is unfathomable in the interplay of yin and yang is called spirit (shen)."

"Spirit is the word for that which works wonders in all things."

Shen describes the subtle transformations of all things. In the cognitive sense, shenming is the extraordinary insight that the mind exhibits at its zenith -- the ability to grasp the subtle changes of things.

Master Xun's assertion that the mind is "the master of shenming" means that the ground and governance of this extraordinary insight lie in the mind. When the mind is in the state of xu, yi, and jing, it can exercise the function of shenming -- perceiving every subtlety and grasping the pivotal moments of transformation.

The Guanzi, "Neiye," offers a deeply insightful passage on this:

"The numinous qi dwells in the mind; it comes and goes. So fine that nothing can be contained within it, so vast that nothing lies beyond it. The reason it is lost is that agitation causes harm. If the mind can maintain stillness, the Way will settle of itself. The person who has attained the Way -- his principles are well-ordered and his inner self does not deteriorate. The way of regulating desires: nothing among all things can do him harm."

The numinous qi dwells in the mind, coming and going. It is so fine it cannot be grasped by the senses; so vast that it has no limits. The reason people lose it is that agitation causes harm. If the mind can maintain stillness, the Way will settle of its own accord.

The "numinous qi" here is closely related to Master Xun's shenming -- both refer to the extraordinary spiritual power that the mind displays when in its optimal state.

Section 6: The Archaic Origins of the Mind: From Shaman to Philosopher

The concept of the "mind" as the core organ of cognition and spiritual activity has a long cultural history.

In the tradition of shamanism (wu-xi) in high antiquity, the shaman was one capable of communicating with the spirits of heaven and earth. This capacity was believed to arise from a special spiritual state -- concentrating the mind, eliminating stray thoughts, and entering a state of spiritual communion. The core of this state was the "mind."

The Guoyu (Discourses of the States), "Chu Yu Xia," records an important passage about shamans:

"In ancient times, the people and the spirits were not intermingled. Those among the people whose vital essence was unswerving and undivided, who were moreover able to be reverent, composed, and upright within, whose wisdom could align with propriety above and below, whose sagacity could illumine far and near, whose clarity could shed light upon all, whose acuity could hear through all -- upon such ones the luminous spirits descended. Males were called xi; females were called wu."

Those capable of becoming shamans had to possess "vital essence unswerving and undivided" (jingshuang bu xie er) -- a spirit focused and undistracted. This is precisely the archaic form of yi. They also needed "reverence, composure, and uprightness within" (qi su zhong zheng) -- qualities related to the cultivation of jing.

In this description, the spiritual prerequisites of the shaman -- concentration, uprightness, clarity -- share a striking structural resemblance with Master Xun's "xu, yi, and jing." This suggests that Master Xun's cognitive theory may, to some extent, have inherited and transformed the experiences and concepts of spiritual cultivation from the archaic shamanic tradition.

Of course, Master Xun's theory of the mind had entirely departed from the context of shamanism and been transformed into a rational, philosophical theory of cognition. But its deep structure -- achieving extraordinary cognitive capacity through specific forms of spiritual cultivation -- is of the same lineage as the shamanic tradition.

This transformation from "shaman" to "philosopher" was one of the most important developments in the intellectual history of the pre-Qin era. The spiritual cultivation experience of the ancient shamans, through long cultural sedimentation and rational reflection, was gradually transformed into the pre-Qin philosophers' philosophical theory of the mind. Master Xun's "xu, yi, and jing" may be regarded as one important fruit of this transformation.

Section 7: The Limitations of the Mind

Though Master Xun highly affirmed the status and function of the mind, he was by no means a blind worshiper of it. Quite the contrary: the core theme of the "Jiebi" chapter is the revelation that the mind can be obscured -- which in itself is a profound recognition of the mind's limitations.

Though the mind is "the sovereign of the body" and "the master of spiritual illumination," it is not omniscient or omnipotent. The mind can err, can be deceived, can make mistaken judgments -- because the mind is subject to conditions.

The mind can know things clearly only on the premise of "xu, yi, and jing"; the mind can exercise the function of shenming only on the premise that bi has been removed. If these prerequisites are not met, the mind falls into confusion and error.

This recognition of the mind's limitations gives Master Xun's theory a deeply reflective and critical character. He was not saying "the mind is always right" but rather "the mind has the capacity to be right, provided certain conditions are met." This attitude embodies the distinctive rational spirit of pre-Qin thinkers.

Chapter Six: Bi -- The Obscuration and Distortion of Cognition

Section 1: The Fundamental Meaning of "Bi"

The character bi, composed of elements signifying grass and covering, originally means to cover, to obscure. Dense vegetation obscures the line of sight -- this is the primordial image of bi.

In Master Xun's cognitive theory, bi refers to the various factors that obscure and interfere with the mind's cognitive function, preventing it from perceiving things clearly and accurately.

The "Jiebi" chapter begins with an extensive enumeration of instances of bi. While Master Xun offered a comprehensive analysis of the obscurations of the various philosophical schools, in the passage under study here he focused on several specific types of bi:

I. Environmental obscuration -- "Darkness obscures clarity"

"One who walks in darkness sees a crouching stone and takes it for a crouching tiger, sees an upright tree and takes it for a standing person -- the darkness obscures his clarity."

Darkness obscures the clarity of vision, causing one to mistake a stone for a tiger and a tree for a person. This is the external environment's disruption of sensory function.

II. Physiological obscuration -- "Wine disorders the spirit"

"A drunkard leaps over a ditch a hundred paces wide, thinking it a tiny channel one step across; he stoops to exit a city gate, thinking it a small doorway -- the wine has disordered his spirit."

Alcohol disrupts the mind, causing a drunken person's judgment of distance and size to become completely distorted. This is a physiological factor's disruption of cognitive function.

III. External-force obscuration -- "Force disrupts the organs"

"One who presses his eyes sees one thing as two; one who covers his ears hears silence as clamor -- force has disrupted his organs."

Pressing the eyes causes double vision; blocking the ears causes auditory hallucination. External force (shi) directly interferes with the normal function of the sense organs.

IV. Distance obscuration -- "Distance obscures magnitude"; "Height obscures length"

"Looking at cattle from atop a mountain, they appear to be sheep -- yet no one seeking sheep descends to lead them away: distance obscures their magnitude. Looking at trees from the base of a mountain, a tree ten ren tall appears to be a chopstick -- yet no one seeking chopsticks climbs up to break one off: height obscures their length."

Distance makes the large appear small -- cattle in the distance look like sheep; height makes the tall appear short -- a great tree in the distance looks like a chopstick. This is the distortion of visual judgment by spatial distance.

V. Motion obscuration -- "The water's movement is deceptive"

"When water moves and reflections waver, one cannot thereby determine beauty or ugliness -- the water's movement is deceptive."

When the water surface stirs, reflections waver, and one cannot judge the beauty or ugliness of a face. The motion of the water distorts the reflected image.

VI. Capacity obscuration -- "Exhausted faculties produce confusion"

"A blind man looks up and cannot see the stars, but one does not thereby determine that stars do not exist -- exhausted faculties produce confusion."

A blind man cannot see the stars, but this does not prove that stars do not exist. The absence of sensory capacity does not entail the nonexistence of the object.

Section 2: The Root Cause of "Bi"

The six types of bi enumerated above involve environment, physiology, external force, distance, motion, and capacity -- a diversity of factors. But at a deeper level, they share a common root cause: the incompleteness of cognitive conditions.

When cognitive conditions are incomplete -- whether because of insufficient light, the interference of alcohol, damage to the senses, or excessive distance -- the mind cannot obtain accurate information and consequently makes erroneous judgments.

But Master Xun's profundity lies in his attention not only to the incompleteness of external conditions but even more to the incompleteness of internal conditions -- the mind's own bi.

"Whenever one observes something with doubt, and the mind within is unsettled, then external things appear unclear. When my thinking is unclear, I cannot determine what is so and what is not."

When doubt dwells in the mind and it cannot settle ("the mind within is unsettled"), perception of external things becomes blurred ("external things appear unclear"). The crucial point here is that the cause of "external things appearing unclear" lies not in the external things themselves but in the "unsettled mind within."

The same external things, in the eyes of one whose mind is settled, are clearly discernible; in the eyes of one whose mind is unsettled, they are blurred. The difference lies not in the things but in the mind.

This is precisely why Master Xun put forward "xu, yi, and jing" -- not merely as a general method of cognition but as the fundamental discipline for eliminating the mind's own internal obscurations.

Section 3: "Deciding Doubts with Doubts" -- The Vicious Cycle of Cognitive Error

Master Xun identified a pattern of vicious cognitive cycling:

"If there is someone who determines things in this state, he is the fool of the age. The fool's way of determining things is to decide doubts with doubts; his decisions are bound to be wrong. If they are wrong, how can he avoid error$5"

To make judgments when cognitive conditions are incomplete ("determining things in this state") is foolish. And this foolishness manifests more deeply as "deciding doubts with doubts" (yi yi jue yi) -- using questionable premises to resolve questionable conclusions.

"Deciding doubts with doubts" is a profoundly important concept. It describes the following predicament: when the mind itself is in a state of confusion, the standards it uses to judge things are themselves unreliable; and judgments made on unreliable standards in turn become new unreliable standards -- thus the cycle continues, and errors accumulate.

How to break this vicious cycle$6 The only way is to return to the foundation of cognition -- xu, yi, and jing. Only when the mind itself has reached a state of clarity can its judgments be reliable; only on the basis of reliable judgments can further correct inferences be drawn.

Here we see a fundamental position of Master Xun's cognitive theory: the reliability of cognition ultimately depends on the state of the cognitive subject (the mind), not merely on the nature of the cognitive object (the thing). Even the best cognitive object, if the cognitive subject is in a state of bi, cannot be correctly known; even the most complex cognitive object, if the cognitive subject is in a state of "clarity," can be accurately grasped.

Section 4: "Bi" and "Huo" (Confusion) in Pre-Qin Thought

In pre-Qin texts, an important concept related to bi is huo (confusion).

The Master spoke of huo several times in the Lunyu:

"The wise are not confused; the humane are not anxious; the brave are not afraid." (Lunyu, "Zihan")

"At forty, I was no longer confused." (Lunyu, "Wei Zheng")

Huo is cognitive disorientation and bewilderment. "Not confused" (bu huo) is cognitive clarity and certainty. The Master considered "not confused" the hallmark of the wise -- this is consistent with Master Xun's identification of "great clarity and luminosity" as the highest state of cognition.

The Master also said:

"To love someone and wish him to live, to hate someone and wish him to die -- to wish him both to live and to die: this is confusion." (Lunyu, "Yan Yuan")

Liking a person and wanting him to live, disliking a person and wanting him to die -- wanting the same person both to live and to die: this is huo. The huo here arises precisely from the er (division) of emotions -- two contrary emotions acting simultaneously -- producing cognitive chaos. Master Xun's statement that "division leads to doubt and confusion" conveys exactly this meaning.

The Most High (Laozi) also addressed cognitive disorientation:

"The five colors blind the eye; the five tones deafen the ear; the five flavors dull the palate; racing and hunting madden the mind; rare goods make a person's conduct go awry. Therefore the sage acts for the belly, not for the eye -- hence he rejects that and adopts this." (Daodejing, Chapter 12)

The five colors, five tones, five flavors, racing and hunting, rare goods -- these external sensory stimuli and material temptations cause the senses and mind to lose their normal function. This is the concrete manifestation of bi at the sensory level. The sage "acts for the belly, not for the eye" -- attending to inner fulfillment rather than external stimulation -- and this is a strategy for "dispelling obscuration."

Section 5: The Moral Implications of "Bi"

Master Xun's theory of bi has not only epistemological significance but also profound moral implications.

In Master Xun's view, cognitive bi frequently leads to moral deviation. A person who is obscured cannot see the whole picture; his judgments are one-sided; and actions based on one-sided judgments are inevitably skewed.

This is most apparent in his analysis of the obscurations of the various philosophical schools. None of the obscured thinkers was deliberately doing wrong; rather, cognitive limitation led to theoretical deviation, which could in turn lead to practical deviation.

Therefore, "dispelling obscuration" is not merely a cognitive problem but a moral one. Only by removing cognitive obscuration can one make comprehensive, correct judgments and consequently take reasonable, proper action.

The Daxue offered an incisive discussion:

"When there is anger in the person, the mind cannot attain its proper state. When there is fear, the mind cannot attain its proper state. When there is fondness, the mind cannot attain its proper state. When there is anxiety, the mind cannot attain its proper state. When the mind is not present, one looks but does not see, listens but does not hear, eats but does not taste. This is what is meant by: cultivating the person lies in rectifying the mind."

Anger, fear, fondness, anxiety -- these four emotions cause the mind to deviate from its normal state, resulting in the cognitive impairment of "looking but not seeing, listening but not hearing." This is fully consistent with Master Xun's theory of bi -- the inner emotional state directly affects outward cognitive capacity.

Section 6: The Cultural Imagery of "Bi" in High Antiquity

The imagery of bi has rich expression in the culture of high antiquity.

The most direct image is "the blocking of sunlight." When the sun is covered by clouds, heaven and earth fall into darkness -- this was the ancient ancestors' most intuitive experience of bi.

In the myths of high antiquity, there are many records and explanations of solar eclipses. Eclipses were regarded as inauspicious omens because the sun -- the source of light and life -- was temporarily obscured.

The Shijing, "Xiao Ya," "Shi Yue Zhi Jiao," says:

"At the conjunction of the tenth month, on the xinmao day of the new moon, the sun was eclipsed -- how greatly displeasing."

The eclipse was considered "displeasing" (chou) -- ugly, bad. This fear and revulsion toward eclipses reflects the ancient ancestors' deep psychological response to bi -- the obscuration of light.

Transferring this imagery to the realm of the mind: the mind is inherently luminous (shenming), but when obscured by various factors, it is like the sun hidden behind clouds. "Dispelling obscuration" is like parting the clouds to let the mind's light shine forth again.

Master Xun spoke of "great clarity and luminosity"; the ming in this phrase is directly related to light and sunlight. When the mind achieves "great clarity and luminosity," it is as if the sun hangs high at the zenith, ten thousand miles without a cloud -- light shines upon everything, and all things are clearly visible.

"Its brightness rivals the sun and moon; its vastness fills the eight extremities."

The mind's brightness can stand alongside the sun and moon; the mind's vastness can fill the farthest reaches in every direction. What a magnificent image!

Section 7: How to "Dispel Obscuration"

The remedy Master Xun prescribed for "dispelling obscuration" centers on "xu, yi, and jing." But he also provided more specific practical guidance:

"Therefore, guide it with principle, nourish it with clarity, and let nothing tip it over -- then it will suffice to determine right and wrong and resolve doubts."

"Guide it with principle" -- use reason to guide the mind. This is the primary method of "dispelling obscuration." When the mind is filled with correct principles, mistaken conceptions cannot gain a foothold. Principle is the standard for judging right and wrong -- with a standard, one is not easily led astray.

"Nourish it with clarity" -- cultivate the mind with purity. This is not the work of a single morning or evening but a long-term cultivation practice. Purity is the prerequisite of stillness -- when the mind is pure, it is still; when still, it is luminous.

"Let nothing tip it over" -- allow no external thing to upset the mind's equilibrium. This requires tremendous steadfastness. The temptations and disturbances of external things are everywhere; to achieve "letting nothing tip it over," one must ceaselessly cultivate and test oneself in daily life.

These three methods encompass the three dimensions of knowledge (principle), emotion (clarity), and will (not being tipped over), constituting a complete program of mind-and-character cultivation.

Chapter Seven: Great Clarity and Luminosity -- The Highest State of Cognition

Section 1: The Meaning of "Great Clarity and Luminosity"

"Xu, yi, and jing -- this is called great clarity and luminosity."

When xu, yi, and jing become one, the state of "great clarity and luminosity" (da qingming) is attained. Da qingming is not the simple sum of xu, yi, and jing but the holistic effect produced by their fusion and interpenetration.

Da -- not ordinary clarity and luminosity but the ultimate, the limitless.

Qing -- pure, without any impurity, free of all obstruction and interference.

Ming -- brilliant, transparent, capable of perceiving everything.

Da qingming is the mind's optimal state and the highest exercise of cognitive capacity. In this state, the mind becomes a perfect mirror, reflecting all things without error.

Section 2: Cognitive Capacities in the State of "Great Clarity and Luminosity"

Master Xun depicted the cognitive capacities of the "great clarity and luminosity" state in a series of parallel phrases:

"Among all things, none that has form goes unseen; none that is seen goes undiscussed; none that is discussed loses its proper place."

Everything that has form can be seen; everything seen can be discussed; everything discussed finds its proper place. This is a comprehensive, accurate, and orderly cognition -- with no omissions, no errors, and no confusion.

"Sitting in one's chamber, one sees to the four seas; dwelling in the present, one discourses on the remote."

Sitting in one's room, one can comprehend what lies at the four seas; living in the present, one can discourse on the distant past. This is a cognition that transcends the limitations of time and space -- without personally traveling to distant lands, one can know their conditions; without personally experiencing the past, one can understand its lessons.

Why, in the state of "great clarity and luminosity," can the mind transcend the limitations of time and space$7 Because although things are scattered across different times and places, the "principles" they embody are interconnected. If the mind grasps these "principles," it can extend its understanding from oneself to others, from the near to the far, from the present to the past. This is not supernatural power but the force of rational inference.

"Surveying all things broadly, one knows their true nature; comparing and examining order and disorder, one comprehends their principles; weaving the warp and weft of heaven and earth, one assigns each thing its proper function; cutting and dividing the great pattern, the entire cosmos is set in order."

This is a grand cognitive panorama -- from the true nature of things to the principles of governance, from the warp and weft of heaven and earth to the totality of the cosmos, all are clearly present in the mind of "great clarity and luminosity."

Section 3: "Great Clarity and Luminosity" and the "Great Person"

Master Xun designated the one who attains the state of "great clarity and luminosity" as the "great person" (da ren):

"Boundless and vast -- who can know its limits$8 Towering and broad -- who can know its virtue$9 Seething and profuse -- who can know its form$10 Its brightness rivals the sun and moon; its vastness fills the eight extremities. Such a one is called the great person. How could he still be obscured$11"

Boundless and vast -- who can know its limits$12 Towering and broad -- who can know its virtue$13 Seething and profuse -- who can know its form$14 His brightness rivals the sun and moon; his vastness fills the eight extremities -- this is the "great person." How could he still be subject to obscuration$15

The "great person" is Master Xun's supreme paradigm of cognition and cultivation. The great person's defining characteristics are: freedom from obscuration, clarity and luminosity, and boundless vastness.

This concept of the "great person" has wide precedent in pre-Qin thought.

The Yijing, "Qian," "Wenyan," says:

"The great person is one whose virtue accords with heaven and earth, whose brightness accords with the sun and moon, whose order accords with the four seasons, whose discernment of fortune and misfortune accords with spirits and gods. He may precede Heaven, and Heaven will not oppose him; he may follow Heaven, and he receives Heaven's timing. Heaven itself does not oppose him -- how much less will people$16 How much less will spirits and gods$17"

The great person's virtue accords with heaven and earth; his brightness accords with the sun and moon; his order accords with the four seasons; his discernment accords with spirits and gods. The phrase "whose brightness accords with the sun and moon" directly corresponds to Master Xun's "brightness rivaling the sun and moon." The great person's ming has reached the level of shining alongside the sun and moon -- this is da qingming at its zenith.

Master Meng also spoke of the "great person":

"To be full is called beauty; to be full and radiant is called greatness; to be great and transforming is called sagehood; to be sagely and beyond knowing is called divinity." (Mengzi, "Jin Xin Xia")

From beauty to greatness, from greatness to sagehood, from sagehood to divinity -- these are the ascending levels of personal attainment. "Greatness" is characterized as "fullness with radiance" -- inwardly full, outwardly luminous. This is consistent with the meaning of da in Master Xun's da qingming.

Section 4: "Great Clarity and Luminosity" and "Ming" in Pre-Qin Thought

Ming is an absolutely central concept in pre-Qin thought; virtually every important pre-Qin thinker discussed it.

The Master on ming:

"When gradual slanders and stinging accusations do not take effect, one may be called ming (perspicacious). When gradual slanders and stinging accusations do not take effect, one may be called far-sighted." (Lunyu, "Yan Yuan")

The ability to see through insidious slander and stinging accusations without being misled -- this is called ming. Here, ming denotes judgment and discernment -- the ability to perceive the truth amid complex situations.

The Most High (Laozi) on ming:

"To know others is wisdom; to know oneself is ming." (Daodejing, Chapter 33)

Knowing others is called "wisdom" (zhi); knowing oneself is called ming. The Most High (Laozi) linked ming with self-knowledge -- the profoundest ming is not seeing through others but seeing through oneself.

"To see the small is called ming." (Daodejing, Chapter 52)

"Not to know the constant is to act blindly and court disaster. To know the constant is called ming." (Daodejing, Chapter 16)

The ability to perceive the minute is called ming; knowledge of the constant is called ming. Combined, ming means the ability both to perceive the subtle and to grasp the constant -- both to see the minute transformations of things and to understand their enduring patterns.

Master Xun's da qingming synthesizes all these dimensions of ming: it is judgment (discerning right from wrong), self-knowledge (removing one's own bi), the power to perceive the subtle (seeing the minute in things), and the wisdom to comprehend the constant (grasping the fundamental patterns of things).

Section 5: "Great Clarity and Luminosity" and "the Way"

Da qingming is not merely a description of a cognitive state; it is essentially connected with "the Way" (dao).

Master Xun said:

"Those who have not yet attained the Way but seek it are told: xu, yi, and jing."

Xu, yi, and jing are the method for "seeking the Way." And da qingming is the result of xu, yi, and jing. Therefore, da qingming is also the state of "having attained the Way" -- or rather, the cognitive horizon the mind displays after attaining it.

"To know the Way and thereby be perspicacious, to know the Way and thereby act upon it -- such a one embodies the Way."

After knowing the Way, one can be perspicacious; after knowing the Way, one can act upon it -- this is "one who embodies the Way" (ti dao zhe). Da qingming is not only cognitive clarity but also demands practical enactment. To know and thereby perceive clearly, to know and thereby act -- this alone is the complete "embodiment of the Way."

The Most High (Laozi) said:

"The Way that can be spoken of is not the constant Way." (Daodejing, Chapter 1)

The Way cannot be expressed in ordinary language. This is because the Way transcends the domain of concepts and words; it can only be grasped through ti -- personal experience and practice. Master Xun's "one who embodies the Way" refers precisely to those who have not only understood the Way cognitively but also manifested the Way in practice.

Section 6: "Seeing" in the State of "Great Clarity and Luminosity"

When describing the state of da qingming, Master Xun repeatedly used the character jian (to see):

"Among all things, none that has form goes unseen.""Sitting in one's chamber, one sees to the four seas."

This character jian deserves deeper exploration.

In pre-Qin thought, jian signified not only physical sight but also the insight of the mind. Physical sight is limited -- it can see only what is present and nearby. The mind's "seeing" is unlimited -- it can "see" things in distant places, in past and future, in the subtlest recesses.

The Zhuangzi, "Yangshengzhu" (Nourishing the Lord of Life), contains a famous passage:

"What your servant cares about is the Way, which goes beyond mere technique. When your servant first began to butcher oxen, all he saw was the ox. After three years, he no longer saw the whole ox. Nowadays, your servant meets it with his spirit rather than seeing it with his eyes -- his sensory knowledge stops and his spiritual desire moves forward."

Cook Ding at first saw the whole ox; after three years, he no longer saw a whole ox -- he saw the tendons, joints, and spaces within the ox's structure. Eventually, he no longer looked with his eyes but "met it with his spirit" (shen yu) -- his spirit directly engaging the inner structure of the thing.

Cook Ding's "meeting with the spirit" is a form of da qingming -- no longer relying on the surface observation of the senses but directly perceiving the inner essence of things.

Section 7: "Great Clarity and Luminosity" and the "Great Person's" Freedom from Obscuration

"How could he still be obscured$18"

Master Xun concluded his description of the da qingming state with this powerful rhetorical question: how could such a "great person" still have any bi$19

This rhetorical question implies that before attaining the state of da qingming, bi is universal -- virtually everyone is more or less subject to its influence. Only the exceedingly rare person who has attained da qingming can be entirely free from bi.

This is a view both awe-inspiring and heartening. Awe-inspiring because it reveals the universality of human cognitive limitation -- we are all obscured. Heartening because it points to the possibility of transcending this limitation -- through the cultivation of xu, yi, and jing, one can attain the state of "great clarity and luminosity."

Chapter Eight: Unity with the Way -- From Cognition to Practice

Section 1: The Fundamental Distinction Between "Mastering Things" and "Mastering the Way"

Master Xun drew an immensely important distinction in this text:

"The farmer masters the field but cannot serve as Director of Agriculture; the merchant masters the market but cannot serve as Director of Commerce; the artisan masters implements but cannot serve as Director of Industry. Yet there is one who possesses none of these three skills and can be entrusted with governing all three departments. How$20 He has mastered the Way. The one masters particular things; the other masters the Way. He who masters particular things manages things with things; he who masters the Way manages all things comprehensively."

The core of this passage is the distinction between "mastering particular things" (jing yu wu) and "mastering the Way" (jing yu dao).

"Mastering particular things" is expertise in a specific domain. The farmer masters agriculture; the merchant masters commerce; the artisan masters craftsmanship -- each has reached an extremely high level within his own professional field.

But "one who masters particular things" has a fundamental limitation: he can function only within his area of expertise and cannot oversee the whole from a cross-domain perspective. The farmer cannot direct the agricultural bureau ("Director of Agriculture"); the merchant cannot direct the commercial bureau; the artisan cannot direct the industrial bureau -- because management requires not only mastery of specific skills but also a grasp of the overall picture and an understanding of fundamental principles.

"Mastering the Way" is expertise in fundamental principles. "The Way" is the universal principle that pervades all specific domains -- it is not any particular skill but the overarching principle that enables every skill to find its proper place.

"He who masters particular things manages things with things; he who masters the Way manages all things comprehensively."

The specialist handles specific matters with specific methods. The master of the Way can oversee all specific matters comprehensively.

The profundity of this distinction lies in its revelation of the hierarchy of yi. "Unity with things" and "unity with the Way" are both yi, but their levels are entirely different. Unity with a thing yields mastery of one affair; unity with the Way yields governance of all affairs.

Section 2: Why Can "One Who Masters Things" Not Serve as "Director"$21

This is a question worth pursuing in depth.

The farmer masters cultivation -- why can he not manage agriculture$22 Because managing agriculture requires knowledge far beyond cultivation itself -- it involves personnel arrangement, resource allocation, disaster response, institutional design, and more. One who only knows cultivation lacks these higher-order capabilities.

More fundamentally, the yi of "one who masters things" is a constrained yi -- his attention is entirely concentrated within his professional domain, with insufficient understanding of other domains. This yi enables him to reach an extremely high level in his own field, but simultaneously restricts his vision.

The yi of "one who masters the Way," by contrast, is a transcendent yi -- his attention is concentrated on "the Way," the fundamental principle that pervades all domains. Consequently, though he may not be expert in any particular skill, his profound understanding of the fundamental principles underlying all things enables him to govern everything from a higher vantage point.

This principle has wide resonance in pre-Qin texts.

In the Lunyu, the Master said:

"The gentleman is not a vessel." (Lunyu, "Wei Zheng")

The gentleman should not be like a vessel, limited to a single use. Vessels each have a specific function -- a bowl for holding food, a cart for carrying passengers -- but the gentleman should not be confined to any single specialized function. The gentleman should grasp the Way, taking it as his foundation, and respond flexibly to every situation.

This is fully consistent with Master Xun's view -- "one who masters things" is a "vessel"; "one who masters the Way" is the gentleman who is "not a vessel."

The Most High (Laozi) said:

"The Way gives them life; virtue nurtures them; things give them form; circumstance completes them. Therefore all things honor the Way and esteem virtue." (Daodejing, Chapter 51)

The Way gives birth to all things; virtue nurtures them; things give them form; circumstances complete them. All things honor the Way and esteem virtue. "The Way" is the root of all things; "things" are merely specific manifestations of the Way. One who masters things sees only one particular manifestation of the Way; one who masters the Way grasps the Way itself.

Section 3: "Unified with the Way, One Is Upright; Verifying and Assessing Things, One Is Perspicacious"

"Therefore the gentleman is unified with the Way and uses it to verify and assess things. Unified with the Way, he is upright; verifying and assessing things, he is perspicacious. With upright intent, perspicacious judgment, action, and discourse, all things are properly governed."

This passage reveals two effects of "unity with the Way":

First, "uprightness." Unified with the Way, one is upright -- concentrating attention on the Way makes the will upright. "Uprightness" is the union of moral rectitude and cognitive accuracy. The mind is impartial, neither seduced by material desires nor blinded by prejudice.

Second, "perspicacity." Verifying and assessing things, one is perspicacious -- using the Way as the standard for examining concrete things yields clear perception. Zan means to assist, to refer to; ji means to examine, to verify. Using the Way as the reference for verifying concrete things, one can accurately judge their rightness or wrongness, goodness or evil.

Uprightness and perspicacity together yield "acting with upright intent and discoursing with perspicacious judgment." Achieving this, "all things are properly governed" (wan wu guan yi) -- all things find their proper place and function.

Guan here means "to manage, to arrange" -- all things each finding their proper guan (position and function) means the realm is well-ordered.

Section 4: The Paradigm of Emperor Shun

Master Xun held up Emperor Shun as the paradigm of "unity with the Way":

"In former times, when Shun governed the realm, he did not issue directives for each affair, yet all things were accomplished."

Emperor Shun governed the realm without needing to issue commands for every specific matter, yet all things were naturally accomplished.

Why could Emperor Shun achieve this$23 Because he was "unified with the Way" -- he had grasped the fundamental Way of governance. With the guidance of the great Way, specific affairs naturally operated in good order.

Here lies a profound insight into governance: the finest ruler is not one who attends to every matter personally, but one who can grasp the general direction, establish sound institutions, and select competent people. He does not need to plow the fields, engage in commerce, or craft implements himself (those are the tasks of "ones who master things"); he need only ensure that the farmers, merchants, and artisans each find their proper place and fulfill their duties.

The Master also expressed similar admiration for Emperor Shun's governance:

"Was not Shun one who governed through non-action (wu wei)$24 What did he do$25 He simply composed himself reverently and faced south." (Lunyu, "Wei Ling Gong")

"Composing himself reverently and facing south" -- this is the concrete manifestation of "unity with the Way" in governance. Emperor Shun did not attend to specific affairs but rather, through his own personal rectitude, influenced all under heaven, and through the guidance of the great Way, directed all his officials.

Section 5: "Dwelling in the One Is Perilous" and "The Mind of the Way Is Subtle"

Master Xun then cited an extremely important ancient teaching:

"To dwell in the one is to dwell in peril; its glory fills every side. To nurture the subtlety of the one -- glorious, yet unknown. Therefore the Classic of the Way says: 'The human mind is perilous; the mind of the Way is subtle.' The critical juncture between the perilous and the subtle -- only the luminous gentleman can discern it."

The passage "the human mind is perilous, the mind of the Way is subtle" is traditionally attributed to the heart-to-heart transmission among the sage-kings of high antiquity.

"The human mind" -- the ordinary mind of daily life, filled with desires, emotions, prejudices, and distractions. "Perilous" (wei) -- dangerous, unstable. The human mind is perilous because it is easily disrupted and obscured by various factors.

"The mind of the Way" -- the mind that accords with the great Way. "Subtle" (wei) -- fine, delicate. The mind of the Way is subtle because it is exceedingly fine; the slightest inattention causes it to be lost.

"The critical juncture between the perilous and the subtle" -- the pivotal boundary between the human mind's peril and the mind of the Way's subtlety. Ji denotes the subtle pivotal moment. Between "the human mind" and "the mind of the Way" there exists an exquisitely fine boundary -- the slightest deviation toward the human mind leads to peril; the slightest grasp of the mind of the Way captures the subtle essence of the great Way.

"Only the luminous gentleman can discern it" -- only the wise gentleman can perceive and grasp this subtle boundary. The ming here is the ming of da qingming -- only one who has attained da qingming has the capacity to distinguish "the peril of the human mind" from "the subtlety of the mind of the Way."

Section 6: The Deeper Significance of the Basin of Water Metaphor

In this section, Master Xun offered his famous "basin of water" metaphor:

"The human mind may be likened to water in a basin. Set it level and do not stir it: the turbid sediment sinks to the bottom and the clear brightness rises to the surface -- enough to reflect one's brows and discern fine textures. But if a slight breeze passes over it, the sediment stirs below and the clarity above is disordered -- then not even the rough shape of things can be truly seen. The mind is just like this."

The brilliance of this metaphor lies in several points:

First, the water itself contains both "turbid sediment" and "clear brightness" -- just as the mind itself contains both the "human mind" (perilous) component and the "mind of the Way" (subtle) component. Water is neither purely clear nor purely turbid; the mind is neither purely good nor purely evil.

Second, the key is "set it level and do not stir it" -- place it properly and leave it undisturbed. Given the right conditions (stillness, stability), the turbid naturally sinks and the clear naturally rises. Likewise, when the mind is in the state of xu, yi, and jing, the "human mind's peril" naturally settles and the "mind of the Way's subtlety" naturally manifests.

Third, "a slight breeze passes over it" -- even the most minute disturbance can disrupt the clarity. The mind is exceedingly sensitive; any small external object, desire, or emotion can disturb the mind's stillness. This is why the cultivation of xu, yi, and jing must be so refined -- sources of bi are everywhere and always present.

Fourth, "not even the rough shape of things can be truly seen" -- once disturbed, one cannot even discern the general outlines. Here, Master Xun used "rough shape" rather than "fine detail" to emphasize that once the mind is disturbed, what is lost is not merely the grasp of details but even the capacity to perceive the broad outline. This is a vivid illustration of "if a trifling thing draws it away, its uprightness shifts outward, its interior tips over, and it no longer suffices even to determine rough principles."

Section 7: The Basin of Water Metaphor and the Cultural Tradition of "the Mirror"

The "basin of water" as an instrument for reflecting one's own countenance had a long history in the culture of high antiquity. Before the widespread use of bronze mirrors, the ancient ancestors used a water-filled bronze basin (jian) to view their reflections.

The Shangshu (Book of Documents), "Jiu Gao" (Announcement about Drunkenness), says:

"Do not use water as a mirror to observe your face; use the people as a mirror to observe your governance."

The "water mirror" here is the basin-of-water mirror.

The tradition of "using water as a mirror" endowed the water surface with a special symbolic significance: the water surface is a symbol of "the mind" -- it can reflect all things, but only on the condition that it is calm and clear.

Master Xun's basin-of-water metaphor unfolds within this cultural tradition. He did not choose a metaphor at random but drew upon an image with deep cultural roots to reveal the profound relationship between the mind and cognition.

Master Zhuang in the "De Chong Fu" (The Sign of Virtue Complete) chapter also used a similar image:

"Confucius said: 'People do not mirror themselves in flowing water but in still water. Only the still can still all seekers of stillness.'"

The Master said: people cannot use flowing water as a mirror, only still water. Only one who has first become still can bring stillness to others. This is entirely consistent with the logic of Master Xun's basin metaphor -- "stillness" (jing) is the prerequisite for "mirroring" (clear cognition).

Section 8: Paradigms of Yi: Cangjie, Houji, Kui, and Shun

Master Xun cited four paradigms of yi:

"Many have loved writing, but only Cangjie's name has been transmitted -- because of yi. Many have loved farming, but only Houji's name has been transmitted -- because of yi. Many have loved music, but only Kui's name has been transmitted -- because of yi. Many have loved righteousness, but only Shun's name has been transmitted -- because of yi."

Many people loved writing, but only Cangjie's name endures -- because of his yi. Many people loved farming, but only Houji's name endures -- because of his yi. Many people loved music, but only Kui's name endures -- because of his yi. Many people loved righteousness, but only Emperor Shun's name endures -- because of his yi.

These four examples span the domains of culture (writing), production (agriculture), art (music), and morality (righteousness). In each domain, countless people participated; yet only those who achieved yi -- supreme concentration -- attained the highest accomplishment.

These examples have deep connections to the culture of high antiquity:

Cangjie is the legendary inventor of written characters. Ancient tradition, cited in the preface to the Shuowen Jiezi, credits Cangjie with "first creating written signs." The invention of writing was one of the most momentous events in human civilization. Cangjie was able to create writing precisely because he devoted his entire mind to observing the forms of heaven, earth, and all things and seeking symbols to express them -- this is yi at its utmost.

Houji was the ancestor of the Zhou people and the legendary god of agriculture. The Shijing, "Da Ya," "Sheng Min," describes in detail Houji's life from birth to the founding of agriculture:

"Truly he crawled and crept; he was able to stand firm and tall. He sought food for his mouth and planted beans. The beans grew luxuriantly; the grain stalks bore heavy ears. Hemp and wheat grew thick; melons and gourds were plump."

From childhood, Houji displayed a natural affinity for and concentration upon crops. His entire life was devoted to the exploration and practice of agriculture -- this is yi as embodied in the legends of the ancient agricultural deity.

Kui was the legendary music master of Emperor Shun's era. The Shangshu, "Shun Dian," records:

"The Emperor said: 'Kui! I command you to take charge of music and teach the young nobles. Be upright yet gentle, lenient yet firm, strong yet not harsh, simple yet not arrogant.'"

Emperor Shun commanded Kui to take charge of music and use it to educate the noble youth. Kui's devotion to and accomplishment in music made him the greatest musician of high antiquity.

Emperor Shun was the paradigmatic sage-king of high antiquity. His name endures in the domain of "righteousness" because he concentrated his entire mind on practicing the way of humaneness and righteousness -- regardless of poverty or wealth, regardless of circumstances, he always upheld the principle of righteousness.

Section 9: "From Antiquity to the Present, There Has Never Been One Who Divided His Mind and Achieved Mastery"

"From antiquity to the present, there has never been anyone who divided his mind between two things and achieved mastery."

This is Master Xun's conclusion after marshaling extensive evidence: from ancient times to the present, no one who divided his mind has ever achieved mastery.

The force of this conclusion lies in its universality -- "from antiquity to the present" encompasses all historical experience; "never been" is an absolute negation -- there are no exceptions.

Yet we cannot help asking: is this conclusion too absolute$26 Are there not people of many talents$27

Master Xun's response would be: versatile people certainly exist, but they achieve in multiple domains not because they simultaneously divided their attention among them, but because at different periods they devoted yi to different domains. When studying calligraphy, they gave their whole mind to calligraphy; when studying music, they gave their whole mind to music -- each time the effort was one of yi, only the object of yi differed.

More fundamentally, true "versatility" derives from "unity with the Way." Once a person has grasped the fundamental Way, he can quickly enter and deeply master any specific domain -- because "the Way" pervades all domains. This is why "one who masters the Way manages all things comprehensively."

Chapter Nine: Mind and Knowing in the Myths and Folk Traditions of High Antiquity

Section 1: The Archaic Image of "the Mind"

In the culture of high antiquity, "the mind" (xin) was not merely the name of a bodily organ but a cultural symbol bearing rich symbolic significance.

The oracle-bone script form of the character xin is a pictograph of the human heart. Through the slaughter of animals and the practice of sacrifice, the ancient ancestors observed the shape and function of the heart -- it beats ceaselessly, sending blood to every part of the body. This observation led them to recognize that the heart is the body's central organ and the key to sustaining life.

From this humble observation, the spiritual significance of "the mind" gradually emerged -- the mind is not only the body's center but also the center of the spirit. Thought, emotion, and will were all understood to originate in "the mind."

This concept of "the mind" is found everywhere in pre-Qin texts:

"When two people are of one mind, their sharpness can cut through metal. The words of those in accord are fragrant as orchids." (Yijing, "Xici Shang")

When two people unite their minds, their combined force can sever metal. Here, "mind" signifies will and direction.

"My heart is full of grief, like wearing unwashed clothes. I think of it in silence -- I cannot rise and fly." (Shijing, "Bei Feng," "Bai Zhou")

The heart's grief is like wearing soiled garments. Here, "mind" is the seat of emotions.

"Others have minds; I gauge and fathom them." (Shijing, "Xiao Ya," "Qiao Yan")

Others have thoughts and intentions; I try to discern them. Here, "mind" means thought and intention.

In the worldview of the ancient ancestors, the "mind" was the nexus through which a person communicated with heaven and earth. The vital qi of heaven and earth entered the human body through the "mind," bestowing life and wisdom. If the "mind" was clear, it could smoothly receive the vital qi of heaven and earth; if the "mind" was turbid, it would obstruct the flow of vital qi.

This conception has a deep connection with Master Xun's "xu, yi, and jing" -- xu, yi, and jing keep the mind clear and open, enabling it to fully exercise its cognitive and spiritual functions.

Section 2: The Ancient Concept of "Spiritual Illumination" and Its Relationship to the Mind

Shenming (spiritual illumination) is an extremely important concept in pre-Qin thought; Master Xun said the mind is "the master of shenming." What was the content of shenming in the culture of high antiquity$1

In the religious beliefs of high antiquity, shen referred to the numinous forces in heaven and earth that transcended ordinary understanding -- the deities of sun, moon, and stars, of mountains and rivers, of wind, rain, thunder, and lightning. Ming referred to the extraordinary cognitive capacity these spirits possessed -- they could perceive everything in the human world, seeing all, knowing all.

Shenming combined signified this extraordinary, all-perceiving power.

In the archaic shamanic tradition, the shaman was believed to be able to receive the bestowal of shenming -- extraordinary cognitive capacity. Through specific rituals and cultivation, the shaman's "mind" entered a special state, enabling communion with heaven and earth and perception of all things.

When pre-Qin philosophers transferred the concept of shenming from the shamanic context to the philosophical context, its meaning underwent a subtle shift: it no longer signified a supernatural numinous force but rather the highest cognitive capacity that the human mind displays when in its optimal state.

Master Xun's assertion that "the mind is ... the master of shenming" fully internalized shenming as a function of the mind -- shenming does not come from external deities but is a potentiality inherent in the mind itself.

This transformation marks an important crossing in pre-Qin thought, from religion to philosophy, from myth to reason.

Section 3: The Ancient Tradition of "Observing Phenomena" and Cognition

The ancient ancestors had an extremely important cultural tradition -- "observing phenomena" (guan xiang).

The Yijing, "Xici Shang," says:

"In ancient times, when Lord Baoxi (Fuxi) ruled the world, he looked upward and observed the phenomena of heaven, looked downward and observed the patterns of earth, observed the markings of birds and beasts and the features of the land, drew near and took from his own body, drew far and took from things -- and thereupon first created the eight trigrams, to penetrate the virtue of spiritual illumination and to classify the natures of all things."

Lord Fuxi gazed upward at the phenomena of heaven, downward at the patterns of earth, observed the markings of birds and beasts and the features of the land, drew examples from his own body nearby and from things afar -- and thereby created the eight trigrams: "to penetrate the virtue of spiritual illumination and to classify the natures of all things."

This passage reveals the basic pattern of cognitive activity in high antiquity:

Step one: observation. "He looked upward and observed the phenomena of heaven, looked downward and observed the patterns of earth" -- broadly observing all phenomena of heaven and earth.

Step two: induction. "Drew near and took from his own body, drew far and took from things" -- organizing and classifying the observed phenomena, seeking the patterns within them.

Step three: creation. "Thereupon first created the eight trigrams" -- on the basis of grasped patterns, creating a symbolic system to express and apply them.

Step four: penetration. "To penetrate the virtue of spiritual illumination and to classify the natures of all things" -- through the symbolic system, attaining the cognitive state of perceiving all things and penetrating spiritual illumination.

In this cognitive model, "observation" (guan) is the central link. And what is the prerequisite for guan$2 Precisely the clarity and concentration of the mind. If the mind is disturbed by stray thoughts, accurate observation is impossible; if the mind is obscured by prejudice, one cannot extract correct patterns from one's observations.

Therefore, the ancient tradition of "observing phenomena" implicitly required xu, yi, and jing -- though the ancient ancestors may not have used this terminology, the substance was the same.

Section 4: The Ancient Tradition of "Prayer and Record" and the Cultivation of "Jing"

In ancient society, the zhu (prayer-offerer) and the shi (recorder) were extremely important cultural roles. They were responsible for presiding over sacrifices, recording celestial phenomena and state affairs, and transmitting the messages of the spirits and the teachings of the ancestors.

The Guoyu, "Chu Yu Xia," describes the qualities required of these prayer-offerers and recorders:

"Whose wisdom could align with propriety above and below, whose sagacity could illumine far and near, whose clarity could shed light upon all, whose acuity could hear through all."

Prayer-offerers and recorders needed to possess extremely high cognitive capacities -- wisdom (zhi), sagacity (sheng), clarity (ming), and acuity (cong) -- to fulfill the weighty task of communicating with heaven, earth, and the spirits.

The cultivation of these capacities required long training. Among the most important forms of training was jing -- in a quiet environment, through purification and meditation, refining one's spiritual perceptive power.

The training methods of the ancient prayer-offerers and recorders may be regarded as the cultural predecessor of the later pre-Qin philosophers' cultivation of jing. From the religious cultivation of the prayer-offerer to the rationalized self-cultivation of the philosopher, the core -- enhancing spiritual perceptive power through jing -- is of the same lineage.

Section 5: "Knowing" and "Foolishness" in the Myths of High Antiquity

Among the myths and legends of high antiquity, there are many stories about "knowing" and "foolishness" that embody the ancient ancestors' simple reflections on the problem of cognition.

The story of Gun and Yu controlling the floods:

Gun attempted to control the floods by damming them, and he failed. Yu changed to the method of channeling the waters, and he succeeded.

This story may be read from a cognitive perspective: Gun failed because he was "obscured" by his existing method (damming) and could not see another possibility (channeling). This is "letting what has been stored impede what is yet to be received" -- existing knowledge obstructing the reception of new understanding.

Yu succeeded because he was able to break through the established pattern of thinking, approaching the nature of water with an open mind, and thereby found a method of management that accorded with water's nature. This is xu -- not letting existing knowledge limit the exploration of new possibilities.

The story of Houyi shooting the suns:

As discussed earlier, the key to Houyi's shooting down the suns was yi -- each shot required total concentration on a single target. This story vividly illustrates the importance of yi in a concrete skill.

The story of the Yellow Emperor battling Chiyou:

The Shanhaijing, "Da Huang Bei Jing," records:

"Chiyou raised an army to attack the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor commanded Yinglong to attack at the fields of Jizhou. Yinglong stored up water. Chiyou called upon the Earl of Wind and the Master of Rain, who unleashed great wind and rain. The Yellow Emperor then sent down the celestial maiden Ba. The rain ceased, and thereupon Chiyou was slain."

In this story, Chiyou employed the Earl of Wind and the Master of Rain to create great storms to disrupt the battlefield -- this is the creation of bi (adverse external conditions obscuring visibility and impairing the capacity to act). The Yellow Emperor then summoned the celestial maiden Ba to stop the rain -- this is "dispelling bi" (removing the disruptive factors, restoring conditions of clarity for cognition and action).

From a cognitive perspective, this myth allegorically conveys a profound truth: on the battlefield of cognition, the creation of bi and the dispelling of bi are an eternal contest. Those who can dispel bi and maintain clarity will ultimately prevail.

Section 6: The Image of "Clarity and Luminosity" in Ancient Folk Tradition

"Clarity and luminosity" (qingming) in the culture of high antiquity was not only a philosophical concept but also a description of natural phenomena and a marker of the seasonal calendar.

When spring arrives, the weather turns from overcast and cold to bright and fair, and the land turns from dim to brilliant -- this is nature's "clarity and luminosity." The ancient ancestors observed that during the Clear and Bright season (Qingming), the sky is especially transparent, the land especially vivid, and all things especially full of vitality -- the best time of the year for the conditions of cognition.

This experience of nature's "clarity and luminosity" was gradually transformed into a spiritual metaphor: the mind's "clarity and luminosity" is like heaven and earth during the Clear and Bright season -- transparent, radiant, and full of vitality.

The Shijing, "Da Ya," "Da Ming," says:

"This was King Wen: attentive and circumspect. Brilliantly he served the Lord on High, and thereby received many blessings. His virtue did not falter, and so he received the allegiance of many states."

King Wen was "attentive and circumspect" (xiao xin yi yi) -- careful and clear-minded. The character zhao (brilliantly) itself carries the meaning of ming -- radiance, luminosity. King Wen served the Lord on High with a clear mind, and thereby received blessings in abundance.

The "attentiveness and circumspection" and "brilliance" here are in spiritual sympathy with "xu, yi, and jing" -- caution (jing), concentration (yi), and radiance (qingming).

Section 7: The Story of Qi and the Ancient Hermit Tradition

Master Xun told the story of a person named Qi:

"Within the hollow rock there lives a man whose name is Qi. He is by nature skilled at archery and fond of thinking. When the desires of the ears and eyes make contact with him, they ruin his thought; when the buzzing of gnats and gadflies reaches his ears, it breaks his concentration. Therefore he shuts out the desires of the ears and eyes, removes himself from the buzzing of gnats and gadflies, and in quiet seclusion thinks -- and then he achieves understanding."

"Within the hollow rock" -- in a spacious stone cavern. This man, named Qi, was skilled at archery and fond of deep thought. But his mind was so sensitive that even the slightest sensory disturbance would ruin his thinking. So he had to shut out all external interference and think only in stillness to achieve understanding.

This story is reminiscent of the hermit tradition of high antiquity. In ancient legend, many sages chose to withdraw from the world and live in seclusion in the mountains and forests, seeking spiritual purity and insight. Their seclusion was not passive escapism but active cultivation -- through the exclusion of external interference, they attained the mind's clarity and penetrating insight.

However, Master Xun's evaluation of Qi was not the highest. He continued:

"If the pursuit of humaneness is like this, can it be called subtle (wei)$3"

If the pursuit of the way of humaneness requires methods like Qi's, can it be called truly "subtle" (refined, profound)$4

Master Xun's answer was no. He considered Qi's method -- shutting out all external interference -- effective but not yet the highest art. For the true "consummate person" (zhi ren) need not shut out the external world to maintain the mind's clarity:

"The subtle one is the consummate person. The consummate person -- why does he need to coerce himself$5 Why does he need to endure$6 Why does he need to fear$7 Therefore, turbid light illumines only external shadows; clear light illumines inner reality. The sage gives free rein to his desires, embraces all his feelings, yet what governs them is principle (li)."

The consummate person does not need to coerce, endure, or fear. "Turbid light illumines only external shadows; clear light illumines inner reality" -- murky illumination shows only external appearances, while clear illumination reveals inner essences. The sage gives free rein to desires, embraces all feelings, yet governs them with principle.

This passage is profoundly significant: the highest form of jing is not the exclusion of all external interference (which is merely a preliminary discipline) but the maintenance of inner clarity amid all external interference. The sage need not flee from desires and emotions but can maintain the governance of li within the natural flow of desires and emotions -- this is the supreme form of jing.

Section 8: The Distinction Between the Humane Person and the Sage

In this section, Master Xun also drew a distinction between the humane person (ren zhe) and the sage (sheng ren):

"Therefore the humane person practices the Way through non-action (wu wei); the sage practices the Way without compulsion (wu qiang). The humane person's thinking is reverent (gong); the sage's thinking is joyful (le). This is the way of governing the mind."

The humane person practices the Way through "non-action" -- naturally and effortlessly following the Way, without needing to force himself. The sage practices the Way "without compulsion" -- without any strain whatsoever; the practice of the Way is for him entirely free and at ease.

The humane person's thinking is "reverent" -- serious and careful. The sage's thinking is "joyful" -- happy and at ease.

The humane person has already attained a very high level -- he can practice the Way naturally, without external constraint. Yet his mental state is still "reverent" -- bearing a certain gravity and caution, indicating that he still, to some degree, needs "effort" to maintain this state.

The sage transcends the humane person -- he not only practices the Way naturally but does so with "joy." The practice of the Way is for him not a duty but a delight. He is entirely free of compulsion and tension; everything is natural, effortless, and at ease.

This resonates deeply with the life-stages described by the Master:

"At fifteen, I set my mind on learning; at thirty, I stood firm; at forty, I was no longer confused; at fifty, I knew the mandate of Heaven; at sixty, my ear was attuned; at seventy, I could follow what my heart desired without overstepping the bounds." (Lunyu, "Wei Zheng")

"Following what my heart desired without overstepping the bounds" -- acting spontaneously yet never transgressing propriety. This is precisely Master Xun's portrait of the sage who "gives free rein to his desires, embraces all his feelings, yet what governs them is principle" -- desires and feelings flow freely, but li always plays the guiding role, ensuring that all activity stays on the proper path.

Chapter Ten: Resonances and Mutual Illumination Among Pre-Qin Thinkers

Section 1: Resonance with the Four Chapters of the Guanzi

Master Xun's cognitive theory has an extremely close resonance with the four chapters "Xinshu Shang," "Xinshu Xia," "Baixin," and "Neiye" of the Guanzi.

The Guanzi, "Neiye," says:

"As for the form of the mind: it fills itself, replenishes itself, generates itself, completes itself. What causes it to be lost is invariably worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, and profit-seeking. If one can remove worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, and profit-seeking, the mind will return to its full capacity. The true disposition of the mind is to seek peace and tranquility. Do not vex it, do not disorder it, and harmony will naturally arise. It flickers as though at one's side, then vanishes as though beyond one's grasp, then stretches infinitely as though without limit. This is not far to seek -- one uses its virtue daily."

The mind inherently possesses the capacity for self-fulfillment and self-perfection. But emotions and desires -- worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, profit-seeking -- cause the mind to lose this capacity. Removing these disturbances allows the mind to recover its original function.

This passage structurally resonates with Master Xun's "xu, yi, and jing":

"Removing worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, and profit-seeking" corresponds to xu (not letting existing emotions and desires impede the mind's receptivity).

"The mind returns to its full capacity" corresponds to da qingming (the mind returning to its clear state).

"Seeking peace and tranquility, neither vexed nor disordered" corresponds to jing (not letting chaotic mental activity disrupt clear cognition).

The Guanzi, "Xinshu Shang," further develops the theory of the mind:

"The mind's position in the body is that of a sovereign. The nine apertures each have their duties, like officials with their allotted roles. When the mind abides in its proper Way, the nine apertures follow principle."

"The art of the mind is to govern the apertures through non-action."

"The art of the mind" is to "govern the apertures through non-action." The mind need not do anything specific; it need only abide in the proper Way, and the nine apertures will naturally follow principle. This is fully consistent with Master Xun's reasoning that "unified with the Way, one is upright" -- if the mind is "unified with the Way," all things naturally find their proper place.

"Empty your desires, and the spirit will enter its dwelling. Sweep away impurities, and the spirit will abide."

Making the desires in the mind empty, the "spirit" (spiritual power) will enter its dwelling. Sweeping away impurities, the "spirit" will remain. Here, "emptying desires" directly corresponds to Master Xun's xu; "sweeping away impurities" corresponds to "dispelling obscuration"; and "the spirit entering its dwelling" corresponds to da qingming.

Section 2: Resonance with the Laozi

Master Xun's cognitive theory resonates deeply with the thought of the Most High (Laozi), despite their different overall philosophical orientations.

On xu:

The Most High (Laozi) said:

"Attain the utmost of xu; hold fast to the depth of stillness." (Daodejing, Chapter 16)

"The Way is like an empty vessel; its use is inexhaustible. Fathomless -- it seems the ancestor of all things." (Daodejing, Chapter 4)

"The Way is empty" -- the Way is xu -- "yet its use is inexhaustible." This resonates deeply with Master Xun's concept of xu -- xu is not vacancy but infinite potentiality.

On jing:

"Returning to the root is called stillness; stillness is called returning to destiny." (Daodejing, Chapter 16)

"The heavy is the root of the light; the still is the master of the restless." (Daodejing, Chapter 26)

The Most High (Laozi) regarded jing as "the root" -- the ultimate destination of all things -- and "the master" -- the ruler of restlessness. This is consistent with Master Xun's view of jing as the foundational condition for cognition.

On ming:

"To know others is wisdom; to know oneself is ming." (Daodejing, Chapter 33)

"To see the small is called ming." (Daodejing, Chapter 52)

The Most High (Laozi) emphasized self-knowledge and the perception of the subtle in his concept of ming. Master Xun's da qingming emphasizes comprehensiveness and thoroughness. The two complement each other -- true ming involves both self-knowledge and subtlety on one hand, and comprehensiveness and thoroughness on the other.

On "the one":

"The sage embraces the one and becomes the model for the world." (Daodejing, Chapter 22)

"Of old, those that attained the one: Heaven attained the one and became clear; Earth attained the one and became tranquil." (Daodejing, Chapter 39)

The Most High's "embracing the one" and Master Xun's yi share a common core -- holding fast to the unified fundamental principle.

Yet the differences are also significant. The Most High's xu and jing are primarily ontological -- they are the nature of the Way itself. Master Xun's xu and jing are primarily a matter of cultivation (gongfu) -- they are states the mind must cultivate. This difference reflects the divergent philosophical concerns of Daoism and Confucianism: Daoism attends to the natural state of "the Way"; Confucianism attends to the cultivation of "the mind."

Section 3: Resonance with the Zhuangzi

The thought of Master Zhuang contains much that resonates with Master Xun's cognitive theory.

On xu:

"The Way collects only in emptiness. Emptiness is the fasting of the mind (xin zhai)." (Zhuangzi, "Ren Jian Shi")

The Way gathers only in the empty place. Emptiness is "the fasting of the mind." Master Zhuang's concept of "the fasting of the mind" resonates directly with Master Xun's xu -- both involve keeping the mind empty in order to receive the Way.

Yan Hui asked the Master what "the fasting of the mind" meant. The Master replied:

"Unify your will. Do not listen with the ears but with the mind; do not listen with the mind but with the vital breath (qi). Hearing stops at the ear; the mind stops at matching. Vital breath is empty and awaits things. Only the Way collects in emptiness. Emptiness -- this is the fasting of the mind."

"Unify your will" (ruo yi zhi) -- yi. "Do not listen with the ears but with the mind" -- not using sensory organs but the mind. "Do not listen with the mind but with the vital breath" -- not even using the mind but the vital breath. "Vital breath is empty and awaits things" -- the vital breath is xu, waiting for all things.

This passage reveals three levels of cognition: the sensory level (ears) -- the mental level (mind) -- the level of the Way (vital breath/xu). At the highest level, the cognitive subject has become entirely "xu-ified" -- no longer clinging to any existing cognitive framework but meeting all things with a state of complete openness.

Though expressed differently, this resonates in spirit with Master Xun's xu of "not letting what has been stored impede what is yet to be received."

On jing and "the mirror":

"People do not mirror themselves in flowing water but in still water. Only the still can still all seekers of stillness." (Zhuangzi, "De Chong Fu")

As discussed above, this is entirely consistent with Master Xun's basin metaphor.

On bi (Master Zhuang used the term "completed mind" -- cheng xin):

"If one follows one's completed mind and takes it as one's teacher, who could be without such a teacher$8 Must one possess the understanding of alternation, with the mind selecting of its own$9 The fool has just as much claim. To have 'right' and 'wrong' before the mind has been formed is to arrive in Yue today while having departed yesterday." (Zhuangzi, "Qi Wu Lun")

"Completed mind" (cheng xin) -- preformed prejudice. If one follows one's preexisting prejudice as a guide, who would be without such a "teacher"$10 This is Master Zhuang's version of bi -- preexisting cognition (the "completed mind") obscures open reception of new things.

Master Xun said "do not let what has been stored impede what is yet to be received"; Master Zhuang said do not "follow one's completed mind and take it as one's teacher" -- both criticize the same cognitive failing.

On "viewing from the perspective of things" versus "viewing from the perspective of the Way":

"Viewed from the perspective of the Way, things have no distinction of noble and base. Viewed from the perspective of things, each considers itself noble and others base. Viewed from the perspective of convention, nobility and baseness do not reside in oneself." (Zhuangzi, "Qiu Shui")

Viewed from the Way's perspective, all things are without distinction of noble and base. Viewed from the perspective of things, each thing considers itself noble and others base. This resonates deeply with Master Xun's distinction between "one who masters things manages things with things" and "one who masters the Way manages all things comprehensively" -- "viewing from the perspective of things" is "mastering things"; "viewing from the perspective of the Way" is "mastering the Way."

Section 4: Resonance with the Mengzi

The thought of Master Meng also contains much that resonates with Master Xun's cognitive theory.

On the status of the mind:

"The office of the mind is thinking. Thinking, one attains it; not thinking, one does not. This is what Heaven has given us. If one first establishes the greater part, the lesser parts cannot usurp it." (Mengzi, "Gaozi Shang")

The mind's function is to think. First establish the mind's leadership (the "greater part"), and the senses (the "lesser parts") cannot disturb it. This directly corresponds to Master Xun's "the mind is the sovereign of the body."

On yi:

The story of Master Yi Qiu teaching chess has already been cited and need not be repeated. In addition, Master Meng offered another important statement:

"Master Meng said: 'Do not do what you should not do; do not desire what you should not desire -- that is all.'" (Mengzi, "Jin Xin Shang")

Do not do what should not be done; do not desire what should not be desired -- that is all. This extremely spare formulation conceals a deep understanding of yi -- concentrate the mind on what "should be done" and "should be desired," and do not let things that should not be done or desired scatter one's mental energy.

On "nourishing the vital breath" and "nourishing the mind":

"I am skilled at nourishing my vast, flowing vital breath (haoran zhi qi). ... This breath is supremely great and supremely firm; nourish it with uprightness and do it no harm, and it fills the space between heaven and earth." (Mengzi, "Gongsun Chou Shang")

Master Meng's doctrine of "nourishing the vital breath" resonates with Master Xun's "nourish it with clarity" -- both emphasize long-term cultivation to maintain the righteous grandeur of the mind/breath.

"There is no better method for nourishing the mind than reducing desires. If a person has few desires, though there may be things he has lost, they will be few. If a person has many desires, though there may be things he has preserved, they will be few." (Mengzi, "Jin Xin Xia")

The best method for nourishing the mind is reducing desires. "Reducing desires" is precisely a concrete practice of xu -- diminishing the diverse desires in the mind, preserving its spaciousness and openness.

Section 5: Resonance and Contrast with the Mozi

Though Master Xun criticized Master Mo in the "Jiebi" chapter for being "obscured by utility and blind to cultural refinement," the two share some commonalities in cognitive method.

The Mozi, "Jing Shang," offers a classification of "knowing":

"Knowing: by hearsay (wen), by inference (shuo), by personal experience (qin). Names, realities, matching, and acting."

Knowledge has three sources: hearsay, inference, and personal experience. This is one of the earliest systematic cognitive classifications in pre-Qin thought.

Master Mo's cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of experience and inference, which differs from Master Xun's emphasis on the state of the mind (xu, yi, and jing) as the decisive factor in cognition. But the two are not contradictory: Master Mo attended to the "sources" of cognition (from where knowledge is obtained); Master Xun attended to the "conditions" of cognition (in what state the mind must be to correctly acquire and process knowledge).

Combined, the two form a more complete cognitive picture: knowledge comes from hearsay, inference, and personal experience (Master Mo); but correctly acquiring and processing this knowledge requires the mind's xu, yi, and jing (Master Xun).

Section 6: Resonance with the Yijing

The cognitive thought of the Yijing has a deep structural resonance with Master Xun's theory.

On "observation" (guan):

The Yijing's twentieth hexagram, Guan (Observation), is devoted to the theme of observation and cognition.

The hexagram statement of Guan reads:

"Observation: the ablution has been performed but the offering has not yet been made. There is sincerity; the countenance is reverently uplifted."

The key to observation lies in "sincerity" (you fu) -- inner truthfulness -- and "reverently uplifted" (yong ruo) -- a posture of reverence. This suggests that guan is not merely a sensory activity but a spiritual one. Only the person whose heart is sincere and whose attitude is reverent can truly "observe" the essence of things.

The six lines of the Guan hexagram, from bottom to top, display different levels of observation:

Initial Six: "Childish observation" -- naive, superficial observation. Six in the Second Place: "Peeping observation" -- partial observation, as through a crack in the door. Six in the Third Place: "Observing one's own life" -- turning the gaze inward. Six in the Fourth Place: "Observing the splendor of the state" -- observing a nation's culture and spirit. Nine in the Fifth Place: "Observing one's own life" -- self-examination from a higher vantage. Top Nine: "Observing others' lives" -- observing the lives and conduct of others.

From "childish observation" to "observing others' lives," the levels of observation rise ever higher, the vista broadens, and understanding deepens. This progressive deepening corresponds to Master Xun's cognitive ascent from bi to da qingming.

On "spirit" (shen):

"Spirit is the word for that which works wonders in all things." (Yijing, "Shuo Gua")

"What is unfathomable in the interplay of yin and yang is called spirit." (Yijing, "Xici Shang")

Shen is the capacity to grasp the subtle transformations of all things. This is directly related to Master Xun's shenming.

"Therefore the virtue of the milfoil stalks is round and spiritual; the virtue of the hexagrams is square and wise." (Yijing, "Xici Shang")

The virtue of the milfoil stalks is circular and spiritual; the virtue of the hexagrams is square and wise. Shen and zhi (knowing) are here complementary -- shen is responsible for spiritual communion with the subtle; zhi is responsible for clear judgment. Together they constitute what Master Xun called shenming.

Section 7: Resonance with the Daxue and Zhongyong

The Daxue (Great Learning) and Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean), as important texts of pre-Qin Confucian learning, resonate with Master Xun's cognitive theory in multiple ways.

The "Eight Steps" of the Daxue and "xu, yi, and jing":

"The ancients who wished to make bright virtue shine throughout the realm first ordered their states; those who wished to order their states first regulated their families; those who wished to regulate their families first cultivated their persons; those who wished to cultivate their persons first rectified their minds; those who wished to rectify their minds first made their intentions sincere; those who wished to make their intentions sincere first extended their knowledge. The extension of knowledge lies in the investigation of things."

Within this layered, progressive structure, "rectifying the mind" (zheng xin) and "extending knowledge" (zhi zhi) are the pivotal steps. "Rectifying the mind" corresponds to Master Xun's yi and jing -- making the mind upright and stable. "The extension of knowledge lies in the investigation of things" -- extending knowledge by exhaustively investigating the principles of things -- corresponds to Master Xun's method of "verifying and assessing things to achieve perspicacity."

"When the mind is not present, one looks but does not see, listens but does not hear, eats but does not taste."

"When the mind is not present" (xin bu zai yan) -- when the mind is not concentrated -- sensory functions are impaired. This is fully consistent with Master Xun's observation that "when the mind is scattered, it cannot truly know."

The "sincerity" (cheng) of the Zhongyong and yi:

"Sincerity is the Way of Heaven; becoming sincere is the Way of humanity. The sincere person hits the mark without effort, grasps it without deliberation, naturally and at ease accords with the Way -- such is the sage."

Cheng -- genuineness, singularity of purpose -- is the Way of Heaven. The sage's cheng is spontaneous -- "hitting the mark without effort, grasping without deliberation." This is consonant with Master Xun's description of the sage who "gives free rein to his desires, embraces all his feelings, yet what governs them is principle" -- both describe the highest state in which one accords with the Way without deliberate effort.

"Only the most sincere under heaven can fully realize their nature; able to fully realize their own nature, they can fully realize the nature of others; able to fully realize the nature of others, they can fully realize the nature of things; able to fully realize the nature of things, they can assist the transforming and nurturing of heaven and earth; able to assist the transforming and nurturing of heaven and earth, they can form a triad with heaven and earth."

The most sincere can "form a triad with heaven and earth" (yu tiandi can) -- stand alongside heaven and earth. This resonates beautifully with Master Xun's description of the da qingming state as one of "weaving the warp and weft of heaven and earth and assigning each thing its proper function" -- both portray the cosmic dimension that the mind achieves at its highest level.

Chapter Eleven: Cognition and the Art of Governance -- From Personal Cultivation to Ordering the Realm

Section 1: The Political Dimension of the Cognitive Problem

Master Xun's cognitive theory was by no means a purely philosophical matter -- it possessed an exceedingly profound political dimension.

In the view of pre-Qin thinkers, the foundation of governing the realm lay in the sovereign's ming -- if the sovereign could clearly perceive the essence of things, accurately judge right and wrong, and reasonably arrange human affairs and resources, the realm would be well-ordered. If, conversely, the sovereign was obscured -- unable to see things as they truly were, making erroneous judgments, arranging human affairs unreasonably -- the realm would fall into chaos.

Therefore, "dispelling obscuration" was not merely a matter of personal cognitive cultivation but a great political concern bearing directly on the order or chaos of the realm.

In the "Jiebi" chapter, Master Xun devoted extensive space to discussing historical examples of rulers who brought ruin upon their states because of bi, and held up Emperor Shun's "unity with the Way" as the supreme paradigm of governance. This clearly demonstrates the marked political orientation of his cognitive theory.

Section 2: "Without Issuing Directives, All Things Are Accomplished" -- The Ideal of Governance

"In former times, when Shun governed the realm, he did not issue directives for each affair, yet all things were accomplished."

This is Master Xun's ideal of governance: without needing to issue commands for every matter, all things are naturally accomplished.

How is this ideal realized$11 The key lies in "unity with the Way" -- grasping the fundamental Way of governance.

What is the fundamental Way of governance$12 Within Master Xun's intellectual system, it encompasses at least the following aspects:

First, ritual and righteousness (li yi). Ritual and righteousness are the foundation of social order. With a well-developed system of ritual and righteousness, people find their proper places and fulfill their roles without the sovereign's constant intervention.

Second, the worthy and capable (xian neng). Selecting worthy and capable persons for official positions at all levels. With worthy officials, specific affairs are naturally handled without the sovereign's personal attention.

Third, moral instruction (jiao hua). Through education and moral influence, enabling the people to voluntarily observe social norms. With effective moral instruction, the people restrain themselves without need for harsh punishments.

These three -- ritual and righteousness, the worthy and capable, and moral instruction -- together constitute the fundamental Way of governance. As long as the sovereign grasps these three, specific affairs will run of their own accord -- this is "without issuing directives, all things are accomplished."

Section 3: "Sitting in One's Chamber and Seeing to the Four Seas" -- Political Cognition

"Sitting in one's chamber, one sees to the four seas; dwelling in the present, one discourses on the remote."

This is not only a description of the da qingming state but also a requirement for the cognitive capacity of the ideal sovereign.

A good sovereign need not personally travel to every corner of the realm to know its conditions -- through the establishment of comprehensive systems for gathering and reporting information (such as the institution of "collecting airs"), he can grasp the realm's affairs from his chamber.

A good sovereign need not have personally experienced every event of the past to understand history's lessons -- through the study of historical texts and the experience of predecessors, he can make sound judgments in the present.

The foundation of this capacity is precisely xu, yi, and jing:

Xu -- not filtering information through one's own biases, but openly receiving reports from all quarters.

Yi -- not being overwhelmed by a flood of information, but grasping the core concerns and concentrating energy on the most important problems.

Jing -- not being distracted by urgent but unimportant matters, but maintaining inner composure and making calm judgments.

Section 4: "Comparing and Examining Order and Disorder to Comprehend Their Principles" -- Historical Cognition

"Comparing and examining order and disorder, one comprehends their principles."

By comparing and studying the historical experiences of order and disorder, one masters the principles of governance.

Can ji -- comparing and examining. Zhi luan -- order and disorder, well-governed and chaotic eras. Tong qi du -- comprehending their principles and standards.

This is Master Xun's requirement for historical cognition: not merely memorizing historical facts but extracting from history the patterns of regularity (du, standards).

Why "compare and examine" rather than merely "observe"$13 Because any single historical case may be contingent; only through the comparison and synthesis of multiple cases can contingent factors be eliminated and truly regular patterns be discovered.

This method was widely applied in pre-Qin thought. The Yijing, "Xici Xia," says:

"Did not the Yi arise in the middle antiquity$14 Did not the author of the Yi have cause for anxiety$15"

The Yijing probably arose in the middle antiquity. Its author probably had cause for anxiety -- this method of understanding a text through its historical context is itself a specific application of "comparing and examining."

Section 5: Cognition and Decision-Making

In the practice of governance, the ultimate purpose of cognition is to make correct decisions.

Master Xun said:

"It will suffice to determine right and wrong and resolve doubts."

"Determining right and wrong" -- judging what is correct and what is incorrect. "Resolving doubts" -- making decisions in difficult and uncertain situations.

In the practice of governance, the most difficult task is often not judging obvious rights and wrongs but making decisions amid "doubts" -- situations that are ambiguous and equivocal. This capacity requires an extremely high level of cognition -- and this cognitive level is the product of the da qingming state brought about by xu, yi, and jing.

Conversely:

"If a trifling thing draws it away, its uprightness shifts outward, its interior tips over, and it no longer suffices even to determine rough principles."

If drawn away by trifling matters, one cannot even judge crude and obvious truths -- let alone make correct decisions amid the complexities of the political situation.

Throughout history, many states have declined and fallen precisely because their rulers were drawn away by "trifling things" -- indulging in sensory pleasures, favoring treacherous sycophants, pursuing short-term petty advantages while neglecting long-term grand designs -- ultimately losing all judgment and bringing ruin upon their states.

Section 6: "Weaving the Warp and Weft of Heaven and Earth to Assign Each Thing Its Proper Function"

"Weaving the warp and weft of heaven and earth, one assigns each thing its proper function; cutting and dividing the great pattern, the entire cosmos is set in order."

This passage depicts the supreme state of governance: weaving warp and weft to organize all things between heaven and earth, and carving out the great patterns of reason to encompass the entire cosmos.

"Warp and weft" (jing wei) -- the warp is the vertical thread, the weft the horizontal. Warp and weft interlace to form a complete fabric. "Weaving the warp and weft of heaven and earth" means establishing a governance system that intersects vertically and horizontally, covering everything comprehensively.

"Assigning each thing its proper function" (cai guan wan wu) -- enabling all things to find their proper material (cai, natural endowment) and their proper office (guan, position and function). This is the concrete goal of governance -- each person exercising his talents, each thing put to its best use, everything in its proper place.

"Cutting and dividing the great pattern" (zhi ge da li) -- carving out the great principles of reason. "Cutting and dividing" is not destruction but the selection from the great Way of the principles most applicable to the current situation.

"The entire cosmos is set in order" (yuzhou li yi) -- the entire cosmos is brought within orderly governance. Li carries the meaning of "principle" (li) -- the cosmos is pervaded by principle, and everything is orderly and rational.

What a magnificent vision of governance! It means that the ruler who has attained the da qingming state can not only govern a single nation but also comprehend and oversee the order of the entire cosmos.

Of course, "cosmos" (yuzhou) here should not be understood in the modern astronomical sense but in the pre-Qin sense of "the four directions above and below" (yu, space) and "past and future" (zhou, time) -- that is, all things across all of time and space. If the ruler can grasp the fundamental patterns of all things, then indeed it may be said that "cutting and dividing the great pattern, the entire cosmos is set in order."

Section 7: The Warning of Master Zeng

Master Xun concluded his text by citing a remark of Master Zeng (Zengzi):

"Master Zeng said: 'If a man's courtyard is only fit for catching mice, how can he sing with me$16'"

If a person's courtyard is only fit for catching mice, how can he join me in song$17

The meaning is this: a person of small vision does small things; a person of great vision does great things. The two cannot be spoken of in the same breath.

"Catching mice" -- trivial, low-level affairs. "Singing" -- lofty, high-level activity.

Master Zeng used this metaphor to warn people: do not be drowned in trivial affairs but set one's ambitions high and pursue higher goals.

This is consistent with the central argument of Master Xun's entire chapter: do not be drawn away by "trifling things" or obscured by "one partial view," but be "unified with the Way" and pursue the state of "great clarity and luminosity."

Chapter Twelve: General Summation -- The Eternal Significance of Xu, Yi, and Jing

Section 1: A Complete Cognitive System

Surveying this passage from Master Xun's "Jiebi" chapter, we can discern a complete and rigorous cognitive system:

The foundation of cognition: The mind. The mind is the organ of cognition, the sovereign of the body, and the ground of spiritual illumination.

The conditions of cognition: Xu, yi, and jing. Xu -- not letting existing knowledge impede the reception of new knowledge. Yi -- not letting multiple cognitive objects interfere with one another. Jing -- not letting chaotic mental activity disturb clear cognition.

The obstacles to cognition: Bi (obscuration). The sources of bi are manifold -- environmental, physiological, external force, distance, and psychological factors.

The goal of cognition: Great clarity and luminosity (da qingming). In the state of xu, yi, and jing, the mind attains da qingming -- all things can be seen, discussed, and properly placed.

The practice of cognition: Unity with the Way (yi yu dao). Concentrating attention on the fundamental Way, using the Way as the standard for observing and judging concrete things.

The effects of cognition: Uprightness and perspicacity. Unified with the Way, one is upright -- the will is correct and impartial. Verifying and assessing things, one is perspicacious -- judgment is clear and unerring.

The paradigm of cognition: The great person (da ren). Brightness rivaling the sun and moon, vastness filling the eight extremities; free from obscuration, sitting in one's chamber yet seeing to the four seas, dwelling in the present yet discoursing on the remote.

This system progresses from foundation to conditions, from obstacles to goals, from practice to effects, from paradigm to ultimate state -- each step follows upon the last, each link interlocks with the next, constituting the most systematic epistemology of the pre-Qin era.

Section 2: The Unity of Three Dimensions

Master Xun's xu, yi, and jing actually unify three dimensions of inquiry:

The epistemological dimension: How does one correctly know things$18 -- Through xu, yi, and jing, one attains da qingming.

The dimension of self-cultivation: How does one cultivate the mind and character$19 -- Through "guiding with principle, nourishing with clarity, letting nothing tip it over," one cultivates the state of xu, yi, and jing.

The political dimension: How does the sovereign govern the realm$20 -- Through "unity with the Way," one oversees all things; "without issuing directives, all things are accomplished."

These three dimensions are inseparable in Master Xun's thought. Correct cognition is the foundation of self-cultivation; self-cultivation is the prerequisite for governance; governance is the ultimate aim of cognition and cultivation. The three are one, constituting the complete expression of the pre-Qin Confucian ideal of "inner sagely and outer kingly" (nei sheng wai wang).

Section 3: The Internal Relationship Among Xu, Yi, and Jing

Though xu, yi, and jing can be discussed separately, they are intimately interrelated:

Xu is the prerequisite for yi. Only when the mind maintains openness and luminous clarity (xu) can it concentrate on a single object (yi). If the mind is filled with existing knowledge and prejudice, it cannot truly focus on the present cognitive object.

Yi is the condition for jing. Only when the mind is concentrated in a single direction (yi) can chaotic thoughts recede (jing). If the mind is directed toward multiple things simultaneously, stray thoughts naturally pour in, making stillness impossible.

Jing is the safeguard of xu. Only when the mind becomes still (jing) can the state of luminous openness (xu) be maintained. If the mind is disturbed by stray thoughts, existing knowledge and prejudice will seize the opportunity to rise, filling the mind's space and destroying its openness.

Therefore, xu, yi, and jing are mutually causal and mutually supporting: xu leads to yi, yi leads to jing, jing preserves xu -- forming a virtuous cycle. Within this cycle, the mind continuously deepens its openness, concentration, and stillness, ultimately attaining the state of da qingming.

Conversely, if this cycle is broken -- the mind fills up with "what has been stored" (loss of xu) -- attention scatters (loss of yi) -- stray thoughts proliferate (loss of jing) -- the mind becomes even more congested (further loss of xu) -- a vicious cycle forms. Within this cycle, the mind grows ever more obscured and chaotic, ultimately falling into the predicament of "deciding doubts with doubts."

Section 4: The Relationship Between the Mind and Principle

In Master Xun's cognitive theory, there is a concept of cardinal importance -- li (principle, reason).

"Therefore, guide it with principle; nourish it with clarity.""The sage gives free rein to his desires, embraces all his feelings, yet what governs them is principle."

Li plays a dual role here:

First, li is the force that guides the mind. "Guide it with principle" -- use reason to guide the mind. This indicates that the mind is not self-sufficient -- it needs the guidance of li to walk the correct path. Without li's guidance, the mind may be dominated by desires and emotions and go astray.

Second, li is the force that governs desires and emotions. "What governs them is principle" -- use li to govern desires and emotions. The sage is not devoid of desires and emotions but can use li to govern them, preventing them from spiraling out of control.

What is li$21 In Master Xun's thought, li encompasses at least the following dimensions:

First, the inherent patterns of things -- "the principle of things" (wu zhi li). Second, the ethical norms of society -- "the principle of ritual" (li zhi li). Third, the fundamental tenets of the great Way -- "the principle of the Way" (dao zhi li).

After the mind achieves da qingming through xu, yi, and jing, it can clearly perceive li -- including the principles of things, ethics, and the Way. Conversely, the perception of li further consolidates and deepens the mind's xu, yi, and jing -- because once one understands li, one is even less susceptible to prejudice, stray thoughts, and emotional disturbance.

Section 5: From "Knowing" to "Acting"

Master Xun said:

"To know the Way and thereby be perspicacious, to know the Way and thereby act upon it -- such a one embodies the Way."

After "knowing the Way" (understanding the Way), one must be able to "perceive clearly" (cha) and, beyond that, to "act" (xing). Knowing and perceiving clearly, knowing and acting -- only then is one truly "one who embodies the Way."

Here lies an important idea: cognition is not the endpoint; practice is. The finest cognition, if it cannot be translated into practice, is hollow; the profoundest truth, if it cannot be manifested in conduct, is useless.

The Master also placed similar emphasis:

"One may recite all three hundred poems of the Shi, but when entrusted with governance, one is unable to manage; when sent on a mission to the four quarters, one cannot respond independently. However much one has learned, what use is it$22" (Lunyu, "Zilu")

Even if one can recite all three hundred poems of the Shijing, if one cannot handle governance when assigned to it and cannot respond independently when sent on diplomatic missions -- then what good is all that learning$23

The value of knowledge lies in practice; the purpose of cognition lies in action -- this is a fundamental conviction of pre-Qin Confucian learning. Master Xun's concept of "one who embodies the Way" is its concentrated expression.

Section 6: The Eternal Inquiry of "Xu, Yi, and Jing"

Let us return to Master Xun's original inquiry:

"How does a person know$24 Through the mind. How does the mind know$25 Through xu, yi, and jing."

This inquiry has been posed and pondered anew throughout the two millennia and more since the pre-Qin era. For it touches upon the most fundamental questions of human cognition: by what right do we know$26 By what right is our cognition reliable$27 How do we ensure that our cognition is not obscured and distorted$28

These questions will never become obsolete, because bi is eternally present. So long as one is alive, one will have prejudices, emotions, vested interests, and cognitive limitations -- all sources of bi. And "dispelling obscuration" -- removing these coverings -- is a discipline without end.

Master Xun's greatness lies in this: he not only revealed the universal existence of bi but also pointed out a concrete path for "dispelling obscuration" -- xu, yi, and jing. This path, though concise, contains exceedingly rich practical wisdom.

Xu reminds us: always maintain an open mind; do not let existing knowledge and experience become shackles.

Yi reminds us: amid the world's complexity, maintain concentration; do not let trivial things scatter your mental energy.

Jing reminds us: amid the clamor and haste of the environment, maintain inner tranquility; do not let chaotic information and emotions disturb you.

These three reminders possess eternal value, regardless of the era or the environment.

Section 7: The Ultimate Destination of the Way of Governing the Mind

At the close of this text, Master Xun summed up:

"This is the way of governing the mind."

"Governing the mind" (zhi xin) -- governing and cultivating one's own mind. This is the fundamental point of departure for all cognitive activity, moral cultivation, and political governance.

When the mind is governed, the person is upright; when the person is upright, the family is regulated; when the family is regulated, the state is ordered; when the state is ordered, the realm is at peace. This is the fundamental conviction of pre-Qin Confucian learning. And the specific method for "governing the mind" is Master Xun's xu, yi, and jing.

The Daxue says:

"From the Son of Heaven down to the common people, all alike must take the cultivation of the person as the root."

From the Son of Heaven to the common people, without exception, all must take self-cultivation as the root. And the core of self-cultivation is cultivating the mind; the method of cultivating the mind is xu, yi, and jing.

This is a path that begins from the innermost depths of the individual mind and ultimately reaches to heaven, earth, and the cosmos. Its starting point is xu, yi, and jing; its destination is "great clarity and luminosity" -- "brightness rivaling the sun and moon, vastness filling the eight extremities."

On this path, every person can walk, and every person should walk. For "the mind cannot be coerced into changing its convictions" -- the mind's autonomy guarantees that every person possesses the potential to set foot upon this path.

And the ultimate destination of this path is just as Master Xun depicted it:

"Among all things, none that has form goes unseen; none that is seen goes undiscussed; none that is discussed loses its proper place."

Everything that has form can be seen; everything seen can be discussed; everything discussed finds its proper place -- this is the consummation of cognition, the consummation of cultivation, and the consummation of governance.

Section 8: The Inquiry Does Not End: How Does a Person Know$29

This essay draws toward its close, but the inquiry will not end.

"How does a person know$30" -- to this question, Master Xun gave his answer. But his answer is not a conclusion; it is the starting point of a new inquiry.

Why can some people achieve xu, yi, and jing while most cannot$31 Is it a difference of innate endowment, or of acquired cultivation$32

Why is bi so pervasive and so tenacious$33 Is it possible for a person to entirely eliminate all bi$34

Can da qingming truly be attained$35 Or is it merely an eternal ideal$36

"The mind cannot be coerced into changing its convictions" -- if the mind is truly completely autonomous, why do people still err and still fall under obscuration$37

To these inquiries, Master Xun may already have offered certain directional answers in his writings, but the final answers are perhaps to be left to each person who thinks earnestly, to explore and experience firsthand.

For, as Master Xun said:

"To know the Way and thereby be perspicacious, to know the Way and thereby act upon it -- such a one embodies the Way."

After knowing, one must perceive clearly; after knowing, one must act -- true understanding comes not from reading and thinking but from personal practice and experience.

Xu, yi, and jing is not a method that can be learned from books but a discipline that must be ceaselessly cultivated in the living of life. Every day, every moment, every thought is an opportunity for cultivation and a moment of testing.

In conclusion, let us close with this passage of profound solemnity from Master Xun:

"Boundless and vast -- who can know its limits$38 Towering and broad -- who can know its virtue$39 Seething and profuse -- who can know its form$40 Its brightness rivals the sun and moon; its vastness fills the eight extremities. Such a one is called the great person. How could he still be obscured$41"

Boundless and vast -- who can know its limits$42 Towering and broad -- who can know its virtue$43 Seething and profuse -- who can know its form$44 Brightness rivaling the sun and moon, vastness filling the eight extremities -- such a one is called the great person. How could he still be obscured$45

May every reader make progress along the path of xu, yi, and jing, drawing ever nearer to the state of "great clarity and luminosity."

Appendix: A List of Pre-Qin Texts Cited in This Study

For the reader's convenience, the pre-Qin texts cited in this study are listed below:

1. Xunzi, "Jiebi" (Dispelling Obscurations)
2. Lunyu (Analects) -- chapters "Zihan," "Wei Zheng," "Shu Er," "Ba Yi," "Li Ren," "Yan Yuan," "Wei Ling Gong," and "Zilu"
3. Mengzi (Mencius) -- chapters "Gongsun Chou Shang," "Gaozi Shang," "Teng Wen Gong Xia," "Jin Xin Shang," and "Jin Xin Xia"
4. Daodejing (also known as Laozi) -- Chapters 1, 4, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 22, 26, 33, 37, 39, 45, 48, 51, and 52
5. Zhuangzi -- chapters "Ren Jian Shi," "De Chong Fu," "Qi Wu Lun," "Qiu Shui," "Tiandao," and "Yangshengzhu"
6. Guanzi -- chapters "Xinshu Shang" and "Neiye"
7. Yijing (Book of Changes) -- Hexagrams Qian, Kun, and Guan; and the commentaries "Xici Shang," "Xici Xia," "Shuo Gua," and "Wenyan"
8. Shangshu (Book of Documents) -- chapters "Da Yu Mo," "Shun Dian," and "Jiu Gao"
9. Shijing (Book of Songs) -- "Zhou Nan: Juan Er," "Bei Feng: Bai Zhou," "Xiao Ya: Qiao Yan," "Xiao Ya: Shi Yue Zhi Jiao," "Da Ya: Sheng Min," and "Da Ya: Da Ming"
10. Daxue (Great Learning)
11. Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean)
12. Liji (Book of Rites) -- chapters "Jiyi" and "Sheyi"
13. Guoyu (Discourses of the States) -- "Chu Yu Xia"
14. Mozi -- "Jing Shang"
15. Shanhaijing (Classic of Mountains and Seas) -- "Da Huang Bei Jing"

All texts cited above were either composed in the pre-Qin period or record pre-Qin thought, and none draws upon materials from the Han dynasty or later, in strict observance of this study's research scope.

(End of Text)

Xuanji Editorial Board