Was the Zhouyi Not Originally Used for Divination$1 — Examining the Primary Function of the Yi from the Oracle Bone Script of "Shi"

Author: Xuanji Editorial Department

"The Yi, it has no thought, it has no action. Silent and still, it responds and thereby connects with all under Heaven." — Zhouyi, "Xici Zhuan (Appended Sayings)" Part Upper

When we mention the Zhouyi (周易, Book of Changes), what often comes to mind for people are tortoise shells, yarrow stalks, hexagrams, and prognostication of good or ill fortune – a "book of divination" used to predict fate. This has been the most deeply ingrained prejudice for thousands of years. However, if we cast our gaze back to the oracle bones of the Shang Dynasty, back to the pre-Qin classics, back into the depths of ancient shamanic-historical traditions, a distinctly different picture will subtly emerge: The original function of the Zhouyi was perhaps not "divination" at all.

This judgment is not based on mere conjecture. Its clue is precisely hidden within the structure of the oracle bone script of one of the oldest Chinese characters—"shi" (筮); its corroboration is scattered throughout pre-Qin texts such as the Analects, Zuo Zhuan, Zhuangzi, Xunzi, and the Xici Zhuan; its roots are deeply embedded in the primordial understanding of Heaven and Earth, of numbers, and of change itself by the ancient Chinese people.

This article attempts to proceed from this long-neglected perspective, to inquire into a fundamental question: Before "divination" became the primary social function of the Zhouyi, what was "Yi" (易)$2 For what purpose did it arise$3 What spiritual needs did it initially serve$4

Chapter 1: Tracing the Origin of "Shi" — The Structural Mystery in Oracle Bone Script

Section 1.1: "Shi" and "Bu" — Two Characters, Two Paths

To understand the original function of the Zhouyi, we must first clarify an extremely crucial conceptual distinction: "Bu" (卜) and "Shi" (筮) have never been the same thing.

The character "Bu" (卜), in oracle bone script, resembles the pattern of cracks on a tortoise shell after being heated. Its original meaning is to heat tortoise shells and observe the cracks to determine good or ill fortune. This was the most crucial divination method of the Shang Dynasty, directly serving royal decision-making—for conquests, sacrifices, hunts, and illnesses, no detail was too small to be inquired about through divination. The over 100,000 pieces of oracle bones unearthed at Yin Xu (殷墟) are the most solid proof of this tradition.

However, the character "Shi" (筮) is entirely different.

The structure of the oracle bone script for "Shi" (筮) has "zhu" (竹, bamboo) or "cao" (艸, grass) at the top and "wu" (巫, shaman) at the bottom. The construction of this character itself implies an important message: Shi, is primarily a shamanic act related to grass (yarrow)—but the original meaning of "Wu" (巫) is not equivalent to "divination."

Why is this point so crucial$5 Because in the semantic field of ancient Chinese, the original meaning of "Wu" (巫) is a mediator who communicates between Heaven and humanity, and harmonizes all things, not merely a "predictor." Although Shuowen Jiezi (说文解字, an ancient dictionary) is a later text, the semantic information it preserves from the pre-Qin period is still of reference value. Here, we should pay more attention to the actual function of "Wu" in pre-Qin texts. The Guoyu (国语, Discourses of the States), in the "Chuyu Xia" (楚语下) section, records the words of Guan Shefu (观射父):

"In antiquity, the people and spirits were not separate. Those whose minds were clear and unwavering, and who were able to be reverent, pure, sincere, and upright... If so, the enlightened spirits would descend; among men they were called xi (觋), and among women, wu (巫)."

This passage is extremely critical. It tells us: the core function of "Wu" (巫) in antiquity was "to prevent the commingling of people and spirits"—that is, to maintain the order and communication between Heaven, humanity, and spirits. The work of a wu was not to predict the future, but to harmonize the relationship among Heaven, Earth, and humanity. This was an organizational and ritualistic function, not a predictive one.

So, the question arises: If the original meaning of "Wu" (巫) in the character "Shi" (筮) was an order harmonizer, not a fortune teller, then was the original meaning of the act of "shi" also not what we later understood as "divination"$6

Section 1.2: The "Number" of Yarrow and the "Image" of Tortoise Shell — A Fundamental Difference in Cognitive Methods

Between "Bu" and "Shi," there exists an even deeper epistemological divergence.

The core of tortoise divination is "image" (象)—the cracks produced by heating the tortoise shell are uncontrollable in form, completely reliant on external random forces. What the diviner does is to "read" these randomly generated symbolic signs and associate them with specific meanings of good or ill fortune. This is a passive reception type of cognition: humans ask questions of the spirits, and the spirits "answer" through the cracks on the tortoise shell.

Shi divination is entirely different. The Xici Zhuan (Appended Sayings) meticulously records the operational process of the "Dayan Shi" (大衍之数, Great Elaboration of Numbers) method:

"The numbers for the Great Elaboration are fifty; forty-nine are used. Divide them into two to symbolize Yin and Yang; hang one to symbolize Three; count them in fours to symbolize the Four Seasons; return the remainder to the bracket to symbolize the intercalary month. Five years have two intercalary months, hence two brackets are made before hanging."

This passage reveals an astonishing fact: Every step of the Shi divination operation has a clear cosmological correspondence. "Divide them into two to symbolize Yin and Yang"—symbolizing Heaven and Earth (Yin and Yang); "hang one to symbolize Three"—symbolizing man standing between Heaven and Earth; "count them in fours to symbolize the Four Seasons"—symbolizing the passage of the four seasons; "return the remainder to the bracket to symbolize the intercalary month"—symbolizing the adjustment of leap months in the calendar.

This is not "randomly generating a number to ask about good or ill fortune," but simulating the fundamental structure of the cosmos through strict mathematical operations.

Why "simulate" the cosmic structure$7 If the sole purpose were to divine good or ill fortune, why go to such lengths to assign cosmological significance from astronomy and the calendar to each step$8 Wouldn't simply rolling dice, drawing lots, or observing bird flight be more convenient$9

This precisely indicates that the original purpose of Shi divination was not "prediction," but "understanding"—understanding the laws of Heaven and Earth's operation, understanding man's position in the cosmos, understanding the rhythm and regularity of change itself.

The Xici Zhuan continues:

"Therefore, the four operations complete the Yi, and eighteen changes form a hexagram."

The phrase "complete the Yi" (成易) is profoundly meaningful. Not "complete the divination" (成占), not "complete the prediction" (成卜), but "complete the Yi." What is accomplished by each Shi divination operation is not a divinatory result, but "Yi" itself—a concrete unfolding of the Way of Change.

Section 1.3: The Absence of "Shi" in Oracle Bone Divinatory Records — A Remarkable Silence

There is another extremely thought-provoking phenomenon worth our deep consideration: In the vast number of oracle bone divinatory records unearthed at Yin Xu, the character "Shi" (筮) appears very rarely, and content directly corresponding to the sixty-four hexagrams of the Zhouyi is almost entirely absent.

What does this mean$10

In the Shang Dynasty, tortoise divination was the absolute mainstream of the national divination system. The "Shi" method and its associated hexagram system, on the other hand, may not have been incorporated into the official divination system during the Shang Dynasty, or rather, it did not originally belong to the divination system.

The Rites of Zhou (周礼), in the "Chun Guan · Da Bu" (春官·大卜) section, states:

"The Great Diviner is in charge of the methods of the three omens... and is in charge of the methods of the Three Yi: one is Lian Shan, two is Guicang, and three is Zhouyi."

This passage juxtaposes "zhao" (兆, cracks from tortoise divination) with "Yi" (易, the methods of the Three Yi) rather than conflating them, precisely indicating that "Bu" and "Yi" were originally two separate systems in the ancient official system. "Zhao" was a divination method, but what was "Yi"$11 It was called the "method of Yi"—the principle of change.

We cannot help but ask: If the original function of "Yi" was divination, why establish a separate system when a mature tortoise divination system already existed$12 If the functions were the same, why duplicate$13 The only reasonable explanation is: the function of Yi is different from Bu. Bu is asking spirits, while Yi is thoroughly investigating principles.

Chapter 2: The Original Meaning of "Yi" — A Book of Change, Not of Good or Ill Fortune

Section 2.1: Pre-Qin Interpretations of the Three Meanings of "Yi"

What is the meaning of "Yi" (易)$14 This question itself is the key to understanding the original function of the Zhouyi.

In pre-Qin literature, the character "Yi" carries at least three meanings: changeability, immutability, and simplicity. These three meanings are not later fabrications, but are deeply rooted in the original semantics of the character "Yi."

First, changeability (变易). This is the most core meaning of "Yi." The Xici Zhuan (Part Lower) states:

"As for the Yi, it cannot be far from us, for it is the Way that repeatedly shifts. It moves and does not remain still, flows through the six realms, is without constancy above or below, with hardness and softness interchanging. It cannot be taken as a fixed rule; it adapts to what is appropriate."

This passage is heavy with meaning. "It cannot be taken as a fixed rule; it adapts to what is appropriate" (不可为典要，唯变所适)—the Way of Yi is not a set of fixed rules, but a following and depiction of change itself. It is not static knowledge, but dynamic wisdom. If the purpose of the Zhouyi were merely to divine good or ill fortune, why emphasize "cannot be taken as a fixed rule"$15 Divination precisely requires "fixed rules"—fixed corresponding rules to judge good or ill fortune. But "it adapts to what is appropriate" (唯变所适) clearly points to a perception and insight into the very laws of change.

Second, immutability (不易). Amidst change, there are things that remain unchanged. The Xici Zhuan (Part Upper) states:

"The Yi has the Supreme Ultimate (Taiji, 太极), which generates the Two Modes (Liangyi, 两仪). The Two Modes generate the Four Images (Si Xiang, 四象). The Four Images generate the Eight Trigrams (Ba Gua, 八卦)."

Taiji—the source of all transformations, the root of all changes—is itself unchanging. What changes are the waxing and waning of Yin and Yang, the passage of the four seasons, and the birth and death of all things. What is unchanging is the fundamental law that governs this change. "Immutability" reveals the constancy of cosmic order. Divination does not need to concern itself with the constant cosmic order—it only cares about specific questions like "Will it rain tomorrow$16" or "Can this battle be won$17" The existence of the meaning of "immutability" indicates that the Zhouyi is concerned with something far grander than specific events.

Third, simplicity (简易). The Xici Zhuan (Part Upper) states:

"Qian (乾) is easily understood; Kun (坤) is simply executed. When understood, it is easy to follow; when simple, it is easy to obey. When easy to follow, there is closeness; when easy to obey, there is accomplishment. When there is closeness, it can be long-lasting; when there is accomplishment, it can be great. When it can be long-lasting, it is the virtue of the sage; when it can be great, it is the enterprise of the sage. Through simplicity and ease, the principles of the world are understood. When the principles of the world are understood, one occupies one's proper place within them."

This passage is particularly crucial. "Through simplicity and ease, the principles of the world are understood" (易简而天下之理得矣)—the simplicity of Yi aims to "understand the principles of the world" (得天下之理). Not "obtain good or ill fortune in the world," not "know the misfortunes and blessings of tomorrow," but "obtain principles" (得理). This is a philosophical, cognitive pursuit. And "occupy one's proper place within them" (成位乎其中矣) further clarifies: by understanding the principles of Yi, humans can find their place between Heaven and Earth—this is an existential settlement, not a utilitarian pursuit of advantage or avoidance of harm.

Section 2.2: "Observing Images and Attaching Text" — The Original Motivation of the Sages in Creating the Yi

The Xici Zhuan (Part Lower) contains a famous passage detailing the process and motivation of the sages in creating the Yi:

"In antiquity, when Lord Baoxi (包牺) ruled the world, he looked at the images in the heavens above, and observed the patterns on the Earth below. He observed the markings of birds and beasts and the characteristics of the ground. From near at hand, he took inspiration from his own person; from far away, he took inspiration from things. Thus he began to make the Eight Trigrams, to connect the virtues of spirits and Heaven, and to classify the sentiments of all things."

Please note the wording of this passage: What was the purpose of the sages in creating the Eight Trigrams$18 "To connect the virtues of spirits and Heaven, and to classify the sentiments of all things" (以通神明之德，以类万物之情).

"Connect the virtues of spirits and Heaven" (通神明之德)—to penetrate the inherent principles of the operation of spirits and Heaven; "classify the sentiments of all things" (类万物之情)—to classify and categorize the natures and laws of all things. This is clearly a cognitive activity, the fruit of wisdom from the ancient Chinese people in systematically understanding the natural world.

Why "observe" (观)$19 "He looked at the images in the heavens above, and observed the patterns on the Earth below" (仰则观象于天，俯则观法于地)—"Observe" is an active, systematic, and methodical cognitive behavior. "He observed the markings of birds and beasts and the characteristics of the ground. From near at hand, he took inspiration from his own person; from far away, he took inspiration from things" (观鸟兽之文与地之宜，近取诸身，远取诸物)—this is a methodology of analogy and categorization, a way of thinking that abstracts universal laws from specific natural phenomena.

If the original function of the Eight Trigrams was divination, why would the sages need to "observe"$20 The core of divination is "asking"—asking questions of the spirits. But what is described here is clearly "observing"—learning from Heaven and Earth. These two verbs are in completely opposite directions: divination is looking upwards to divine will, while observing images is externally observing Heaven and Earth.

The Xici Zhuan (Part Lower) continues to record a series of specific examples of "observing images and making artifacts":

"He made knots to tie nets, for hunting and fishing; this was taken from the Li (离) trigram. After Baoxi's passing, Shennong (神农) succeeded him. He chopped wood to make shares (耜), and bent wood to make plows (耒). The benefits of plows and hoes were taught to the world; this was taken from the Yi (益) trigram. At midday, markets were established, bringing together the people of the world and gathering the goods of the world. They traded and then dispersed, each obtaining what they needed; this was taken from the Shihe (噬嗑) trigram."

What is listed here are all inventions of practical technology and social systems: fishing and hunting nets taken from the Li trigram, agricultural tools taken from the Yi trigram, and the system of market trade taken from the Shihe trigram. What does this illustrate$21 Hexagram images were initially used to guide specific technological inventions and social organizations, not to predict good or ill fortune. The sages read from the hexagram images not "Will hunting be auspicious tomorrow$22" but "How to invent fishing nets," "How to make agricultural tools," "How to organize trade."

What profound insight this is! The original function of Yi was actually a form of ancient "philosophy of technology" and "philosophy of institutions"—guiding the concrete construction of human civilization through the observation and abstraction of the images of Heaven, Earth, and all things.

Section 2.3: The "Narrative Nature" of Hexagram and Line Statements — The Neglected Literary Dimension

If we carefully read the hexagram and line statements of the sixty-four hexagrams, we will discover a feature that is often overlooked: a large number of hexagram and line statements are not divinatory judgments, but narrative, descriptive, and even poetic texts.

For example, the first line statement of the Tun (屯) hexagram:

"Hesitating, it is favorable to abide in correctness; it is favorable to establish feudal lords." (磐桓，利居贞，利建侯。)

This is a description of a situation—a time of hesitation and indecision; it is favorable to remain steadfast in correctness, and favorable to establish feudal lords. It is more like a maxim of political wisdom than a divinatory judgment.

Another example is the line statements of the Jian (渐) hexagram:

"The goose gradually ascends to the bank." "The goose gradually ascends to the rock." "The goose gradually ascends to the land." "The goose gradually ascends to the tree." "The goose gradually ascends to the hill." "The goose gradually ascends to the land." (鸿渐于干... 鸿渐于磐... 鸿渐于陆... 鸿渐于木... 鸿渐于陵... 鸿渐于陆)

This is clearly a complete poem—describing the process of geese flying higher and higher from the water's edge, to the rocks, to the land, to the trees, to the hills. It uses a beautiful natural image to symbolize the gradual development process of things. This is poetry, philosophy, a condensation of wisdom—not divination.

Yet another example is the sixth line statement of the Mingyi (明夷) hexagram:

"Entering the left flank, one captures the heart of Mingyi, and goes out of the courtyard gate." (入于左腹，获明夷之心，于出门庭。)

This is almost a narrative—someone penetrates deep into the "left flank" (metaphor for a dangerous situation), understands the truth of "Mingyi" (brightness injured, the worthy suffering misfortune), and then walks out of the courtyard gate. It describes a process of cognition and awakening.

Why are there so many narratives, metaphors, and poems in the hexagram and line statements$23 Because they were originally not written for divination. They are a systematic summarization by ancient peoples of life's circumstances, a crystallization of life's wisdom, and a condensed expression of the "principles of human affairs." The hexagrams provide a classificatory framework (sixty-four basic situations), and the line statements provide specific wisdom for dealing with different stages within each situation.

This is more akin to an "Encyclopedia of Life Situations" rather than a "Divination Manual."

Chapter 3: The Confucian Perspective of the Pre-Qin Period: The Master of Yi Does Not Divinate

Section 3.1: Confucius and the Yi — The Deeper Meaning of "Binding the Bamboo Slips Until They Fell Apart Three Times"

Confucius deeply loved the Zhouyi in his later years. Although the Records of the Grand Historian (史记) is a later text, the Analects already contains several key clues. The Analects, "Wei Zheng" (为政) chapter, records Confucius' words:

"If Heaven would grant me a few more years, I would devote fifty years to the study of the Yi, and then I might be without great fault." (加我数年，五十以学《易》，可以无大过矣。)

This sentence deserves repeated contemplation. What is the result of studying the Yi according to Confucius$24 Not "one can know good or ill fortune," not "one can seek advantage and avoid harm," but "one can be without great fault" (可以无大过矣)—one can avoid major mistakes.

Why can studying the Yi lead to "no great fault"$25 Because the Yi teaches one to understand the laws of change—when to advance, when to retreat; when steadfastness is needed, when gentleness is needed; when a stage is a beginning, when it is a peak. By understanding these principles of change, one can make reasonable judgments in complex life situations, thereby avoiding major errors caused by ignorance.

This is completely different from divination. Divination is seeking externally from spirits—I don't know what to do, so I ask the spirits to tell me. But what Confucius understood by studying the Yi is cultivating oneself internally—by understanding the Way of Change, one enhances one's own judgment and wisdom.

The Analects, "Zi Lu" (子路) chapter, also contains a very important record:

"The Master said, 'The people of the South have a saying, "A man who is not constant in his virtue cannot be a shaman or a physician." Good indeed!' 'One who is not constant in his virtue, will receive shame.' The Master said, 'This is clear without divination.'" (子曰：“南人有言曰：人而无恒，不可以作巫医。’善夫！‘不恒其德，或承之羞。’子曰：‘不占而已矣。’")

The last four characters of this passage—"clear without divination" (不占而已矣)—are truly striking. Confucius quotes the ninth line statement of the Heng (恒) hexagram, "One who is not constant in his virtue, will receive shame," and then says: "It is clear without divination."

What does this mean$26 Confucius believed that the principles contained in the hexagram and line statements are life wisdom that can be directly applied without needing divination. "One who is not constant in his virtue, will receive shame"—Does this truth require divination to be known$27 Of course not. It is itself an irrefutable principle of life.

Confucius here explicitly elevates the Zhouyi from a "tool of divination" to a "book of life wisdom." This is not his "innovation," but rather a "return" to the original function of the Yi.

Section 3.2: Re-examination of Shi-Divination Examples in the Zuo Zhuan and Guoyu

The Zuo Zhuan and Guoyu record numerous instances of Shi-divination, which are often cited as ironclad proof that the Zhouyi is a "book of divination." However, if we carefully read these divination examples, we will find a very interesting phenomenon: what truly influences the final judgment is often not the hexagrams themselves, but the diviner's political wisdom and insight into human affairs.

The most famous example appears in the Zuo Zhuan, the 15th year of Duke Xi's reign. Before the Battle of Han Yuan between Qin and Jin, Duke Xian of Jin performed a divination:

"He divined, and obtained the Gu (蛊) hexagram." (筮之，遇《蛊》。)

This is followed by an explanation of the hexagram. However, if we read carefully, we will find that the diviner did not mechanically interpret the hexagram statement to judge good or ill fortune, but rather integrated a comprehensive analysis of the political situation, military strength, and moral stance of both Qin and Jin, and then "embedded" this analysis into the interpretation of the hexagram.

Another example, in the Zuo Zhuan, the 25th year of Duke Xiang's reign, records Cui Wuzi's divination for marriage with Tang Jiang:

"He obtained the Kun (困) hexagram changing to Daguo (大过). The scribes all said it was auspicious. Chen Wuzi said, 'To follow the wind implies danger; a wind that destroys one's wife is not to be married. Moreover, the accompanying text says: "Trapped by stones, supported by蒺藜, entering his palace, he does not see his wife—misfortune."' (遇《困》之《大过》。史皆曰吉。陈文子曰：‘夫从风，风陨妻，不可娶也。且其繇曰：困于石，据于蒺藜，入于其宫，不见其妻，凶。’")

Here, an interesting divergence arises: The official scribes said it was auspicious, while Master Chen Wuzi said it was inauspicious. The same hexagram yields completely opposite conclusions. This is because the key to judging good or ill fortune lies not in the hexagram itself, but in the wisdom of the interpreter. Master Chen Wuzi judged it inauspicious because he had deep insight into Cui Wuzi's character and the political consequences of this marriage. The hexagram merely served as a linguistic tool for him to express this insight.

This is akin to how we use idioms and allusions today to express our judgments—quoting an idiom is not "divination," but "borrowing shared wisdom from a cultural community to convey one's views."

The Shi-divination examples in the Zuo Zhuan precisely prove that: in the actual usage by pre-Qin aristocrats, the Zhouyi was more often treated as a "symbolic system for expressing wisdom" rather than a "mechanical tool for predicting fortune."

Let's look again at a famous record in the Guoyu, "Jin Yu Si" (晋语四). Duke Chong'er of Jin (later Duke Wen), while in exile, performed a divination:

"He obtained the Tun (屯) hexagram changing to Yu (豫), both totaling eight. The divinatory scribes interpreted it, and all said it was inauspicious. Sikong Jizi said, 'Auspicious. This is in the Zhouyi, both lines say: "It is favorable to establish feudal lords."' (遇《屯》之《豫》，皆八也。筮史占之，皆曰不吉。司空季子曰：‘吉。是在《周易》，皆利建侯。’")

Again, a disagreement! The divinatory scribes said inauspicious, while Master Sikong Jizi said auspicious. What was Master Sikong Jizi's basis$28 He cited the common phrase "favorable to establish feudal lords" from both the Tun and Yu hexagrams, believing this presaged Chong'er's eventual establishment of hegemony.

The key here is: Master Sikong Jizi's judgment did not come from a mechanical interpretation of the hexagrams, but from his political assessment of Chong'er's abilities and the overall trend of the world. He first had the opinion that "Chong'er will surely succeed," and then found textual support for this opinion in the hexagram statements. This is less like "divination" and more like "using Yi principles to validate political views."

Section 3.3: Master Xunzi's Astonishing Statement

Among the pre-Qin Confucians, Master Xunzi's analysis of the relationship between the Yi and divination is the clearest and most incisive. In the "Da Lue" (大略) chapter of Xunzi, there is an astonishing passage:

"The master of Shi poetry does not expound; the master of Yi does not divine; the master of Li rites does not officiate as a general guide. Their minds are the same." (善为《诗》者不说，善为《易》者不占，善为《礼》者不相，其心同也。)

The significance of this statement cannot be overstated. "The master of Yi does not divine" (善为《易》者不占)—those who truly master the Yi do not divine.

Why$29 Master Xunzi places the Yi alongside the Shi and Li: a master of Shi does not need to explain every word and phrase because he has already grasped the spirit of the poetry; a master of Li does not need to provide specific guidance for rites (as an officiant, "xiang," 相) because he has already internalized the spirit of the rites. Similarly, a master of Yi does not need to divine because he has already grasped the fundamental laws of the Way of Change and can directly apply this wisdom to deal with all life situations.

Master Xunzi's assertion reveals a profound truth: Divination is merely a low-level application of the Yi—a temporary measure for those who have not yet grasped the Way of Yi. The true value of the Yi lies in the fundamental wisdom it contains regarding change, order, and how to conduct oneself between Heaven and Earth.

This is entirely consistent with Confucius's attitude of "clear without divination." The core stance of pre-Qin Confucians is: The Yi is a book of the Way, not a tool of divination.

Section 3.4: "Pure, Tranquil, Subtle, and Minute—This is the Teaching of the Yi": Its Position in the Book of Rites

In the "Jing Jie" (经解) chapter of the Book of Rites (礼记), there is a very important passage recording Confucius's summary of the educational functions of the Six Classics:

"Entering a country, its teachings can be known. If its people are gentle and sincere, it is the teaching of Shi poetry. If they are broad and knowledgeable, far-seeing and discerning, it is the teaching of Shu history. If they are magnanimous, expansive, easy-going, and good, it is the teaching of Yue music. If they are pure, tranquil, subtle, and minute, it is the teaching of Yi changes. If they are reverent, frugal, solemn, and respectful, it is the teaching of Li rites. If they arrange words and compare events, it is the teaching of Chun Qiu Spring and Autumn Annals." (入其国，其教可知也。其为人也温柔敦厚，《诗》教也。疏通知远，《书》教也。广博易良，《乐》教也。洁静精微，《易》教也。恭俭庄敬，《礼》教也。属辞比事，《春秋》教也。)

"Pure, tranquil, subtle, and minute—this is the teaching of the Yi" (洁静精微，《易》教也). The qualities cultivated by those who study the Yi are "pure, tranquil, subtle, and minute"—purity of mind, tranquility of spirit, precision of thought, and subtlety of insight.

What kind of qualities are these$30 These are clearly the qualities of wise persons and philosophers, not of diviners. What does a diviner need$31 Skill in divination techniques, memory of numerological systems, and decisiveness in judging good or ill fortune. But "pure, tranquil, subtle, and minute" describes a highly introspective, deeply contemplative spirit that can perceive subtle changes in things.

This is precisely the spirit of "observation" (观)—the heart of a wise person who looks up to observe the astronomical phenomena, looks down to observe the terrestrial patterns, and observes humanity in between. "Pure, tranquil, subtle, and minute" is less a teaching for divination and more a teaching of philosophy.

Chapter 4: The Ancient Perspective: The Shamanic-Historical Tradition and the Sacredness of "Number"

Section 4.1: From "Severing Communication Between Heaven and Earth" to "Divergence of Shamans and Historians" — The Transformation of Knowledge Power

To understand the original function of the Zhouyi, we must shift our focus back to the ancient shamanic-historical tradition, even earlier than the Zhou Dynasty.

The Guoyu, "Chuyu Xia," records an extremely important ancient historical narrative—"Severing Communication Between Heaven and Earth" (绝地天通):

"When Shao Hao's (少皞) reign declined, the Jiuli (九黎) tribes disrupted virtue, and people and spirits mingled, making distinctions impossible. Each household offered sacrifices, and each family acted as shaman or historian, without proper standards. The people were depleted in sacrifices and did not know their blessings. The incessant offerings were without measure, and people and spirits occupied the same positions. Zhuanxu (颛顼) received this mandate, and accordingly ordered Nan Zheng Zhong (南正重) to be in charge of Heaven to connect with spirits, and ordered Huo Zheng Li (火正黎) to be in charge of Earth to connect with people. This was to restore the old order, without mutual transgression. This is called the Severing of Communication Between Heaven and Earth." (及少皞之衰也，九黎乱德，民神杂糅，不可方物。夫人作享，家为巫史，无有要质。民匮于祀而不知其福。烝享无度，民神同位。颛顼受之，乃命南正重司天以属神，命火正黎司地以属民。使复旧常，无相侵渎，是谓绝地天通。)

This passage describes a major reform in ancient society: after the decline of Shao Hao's reign, "people and spirits mingled"—everyone could communicate with spirits, and every family had shamans, leading to great disorder in social order. Emperor Zhuanxu then carried out a "restructuring of knowledge power"—ordering "Zhong" to be solely in charge of heavenly affairs and "Li" to be solely in charge of earthly affairs, thus transforming communication between Heaven and humanity from a freely accessible act for everyone into a specialized, institutionalized, and ordered knowledge system.

This is "Severing Communication Between Heaven and Earth"—cutting off direct channels of communication between ordinary people and the heavens, concentrating the power of "communicating with Heaven" in the hands of professional religious personnel.

Why recount this ancient history$32 Because the Zhouyi is likely a product of the transformation of the shamanic-historical tradition towards rationalization after the "Severing of Communication Between Heaven and Earth."

Before the "Severing of Communication Between Heaven and Earth," shamans communicated with spirits through ecstasy, possession, and intuition—a direct, irrational mode of cognition. After the "Severing of Communication Between Heaven and Earth," communication between Heaven and humanity was brought into an institutionalized framework, and the previously intuitive shamanic cognition began to transform towards systematic image-number cognition. The system of Eight Trigrams, sixty-four hexagrams, and Yin-Yang lines is precisely the crystallization of this transformation—it transformed the vague spiritual intuitions of shamans into a operable, teachable, and verifiable symbolic system.

In other words, the birth of the Zhouyi was not the development of divination techniques, but the rational sublimation of the ancient shamanic-historical tradition—a leap from "communicating with spirits" to "thoroughly investigating principles."

Section 4.2: Yarrow Worship and Plant Spirit Power — Vestiges of Ancient Thought

Why does Shi divination use yarrow, and not other materials$33 This seemingly minor question hides a profound secret of ancient thought.

The Xici Zhuan states:

"Therefore, the virtue of yarrow is round and spiritual; the virtue of the hexagram is square and knowledgeable." (是故蓍之德圆而神，卦之德方以知。)

The virtue of yarrow is "round and spiritual" (圆而神)—harmonious and divinely responsive. The word "spiritual" (神) here is not superstitious; it reflects the ancient perception of the special properties of the yarrow plant. Yarrow (Achillea) grows slowly, is said to live for hundreds of years, and its stems are firm and hollow. These natural characteristics were endowed with cosmological significance in ancient thought: longevity symbolizes "lasting as long as Heaven and Earth," hollowness symbolizes "emptiness that can receive," and uprightness symbolizes "correctness without deviation."

But the deeper reason may be that the growth process of yarrow itself is a miniature cosmos of "change." From seed germination, to the unfolding of stems and leaves, to the blooming of flower clusters, to withering in autumn and winter, and regenerating in the following year—this cycle of life and death is precisely the natural symbol of the "Way of Change" described in the Zhouyi.

Choosing yarrow as a tool for Shi divination was not because it possessed some mysterious "divinatory spiritual power," but because its natural life itself embodied the "Way of Yi." Using yarrow in the Shi divination operation was to use a natural object that was in cosmic resonance with Heaven and Earth to simulate the laws of Heaven and Earth's operation—this is a profound way of thinking "observing the Way through things."

The Shuogua Zhuan (说卦传, Explaining the Trigrams) further reveals the essence of this ancient thought:

"In ancient times, when the sages made the Yi, they were mysteriously inspired by spirits and produced yarrow; they matched Heaven and Earth and relied on numbers; they observed changes in Yin and Yang and established the hexagrams; they elaborated on hardness and softness and produced the lines; they harmonized with the Way and regulated righteousness; they exhausted principles and fulfilled nature, reaching to destiny." (昔者圣人之作《易》也，幽赞于神明而生蓍，参天两地而倚数，观变于阴阳而立卦，发挥于刚柔而生爻，和顺于道德而理于义，穷理尽性以至于命。)

Please note the logical chain in this passage: "mysteriously inspired by spirits and produced yarrow" (幽赞于神明而生蓍) is the starting point, and "exhausted principles and fulfilled nature, reaching to destiny" (穷理尽性以至于命) is the endpoint. From yarrow, it ultimately leads to "exhausting principles and fulfilling nature, reaching to destiny"—thoroughly understanding the principles of all things, exhausting the truth of one's fundamental nature, and ultimately comprehending the profound mystery of destiny.

This is a complete epistemological program, not an operational manual for divination. "Exhausted principles and fulfilled nature, reaching to destiny"—is this a realm attainable by divination$34 This clearly points to the ultimate pursuit of philosophy, and even ontology.

Section 4.3: The Sacredness of "Number" — The Numbers of Great Elaboration and the Numbers of Heaven and Earth

The ancient understanding of "number" (数) fundamentally differs from later periods. In ancient thought, number was not an abstract mathematical concept, but the fundamental code of cosmic order.

The Xici Zhuan states:

"Heaven is one, Earth is two; Heaven is three, Earth is four; Heaven is five, Earth is six; Heaven is seven, Earth is eight; Heaven is nine, Earth is ten. The numbers of Heaven are five, the numbers of Earth are five; the five elements mutually attain their position and each has its combination. The numbers of Heaven are twenty-five; the numbers of Earth are thirty. The sum of the numbers of Heaven and Earth is fifty-five. This is how changes are completed and spirits and ghosts move." (天一，地二，天三，地四，天五，地六，天七，地八，天九，地十。天数五，地数五，五位相得而各有合。天数二十有五，地数三十，凡天地之数五十有五。此所以成变化而行鬼神也。)

This passage assigns the natural numbers one to ten to Heaven and Earth: odd numbers belong to Heaven (1, 3, 5, 7, 9), and even numbers belong to Earth (2, 4, 6, 8, 10). The sum of Heaven's numbers is 25, and the sum of Earth's numbers is 30. The total sum of Heaven and Earth's numbers is 55.

Why does a description of numbers appear here$35 Why does it say "This is how changes are completed and spirits and ghosts move" (此所以成变化而行鬼神也)—this is the fundamental reason for the changes and operations of all things under Heaven and Earth, and the movement of spirits and ghosts$36

Because in ancient thought, numbers are the skeleton of cosmic structure. The reason why all things under Heaven and Earth can operate, change, and flourish endlessly is that they follow the laws of numbers. One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten are not human-invented calculation tools, but the inherent order codes of Heaven and Earth.

The core operation of Shi divination—dividing the yarrow stalks, counting them, and returning the remainder—is essentially a mathematical calculation process. Each operation produces a number (6, 7, 8, 9), corresponding to old Yin, young Yang, young Yin, and old Yang. The combination of these numbers forms the hexagram—and the hexagram is a symbolic expression of the cosmic structure at a particular moment.

Therefore, Shi divination is not "gambling with random numbers to predict fate," but "revealing the cosmic structure at this moment through mathematical calculation." There is a world of difference between the two: the former is superstition, the latter is a simple, yet profound, "cosmology of numbers."

The Xici Zhuan further states:

"The Yi has four ways of the sage: In speech, the emphasis is on the words; in action, the emphasis is on change; in making artifacts, the emphasis is on images; in divination, the emphasis is on prognostication." (夫《易》，圣人之道四焉：以言者尚其辞，以动者尚其变，以制器者尚其象，以卜筮者尚其占。)

This passage explicitly lists the four functions of the Yi: 1. The Way of Speech (emphasis on words); 2. The Way of Action (emphasis on change); 3. The Way of Making Artifacts (emphasis on images); 4. The Way of Divination (emphasis on prognostication).

Please note: Divination is only the last of the four functions. It is placed alongside the teaching of speech, the guidance of action, and the creation of technology, not above them. This itself indicates that, in the understanding of the author of the Xici Zhuan, divination was not the core function of the Yi, but merely one of its many functions—even the last one.

Chapter 5: The Daoist Perspective: The Common Origin of Yi and Dao

Section 5.1: Laozi's "Dao" and the Yi's "Taiji"

The relationship between Laozi's (老子) teachings and the Zhouyi is one of the most profound topics in pre-Qin philosophy. Although Laozi never directly discussed the Zhouyi, the worldview implicit in the Daodejing (道德经) exhibits a surprising structural similarity to the fundamental spirit of the Zhouyi.

The Daodejing, Chapter 42, states:

"The Dao gave birth to One; One gave birth to Two; Two gave birth to Three; Three gave birth to the myriad things. The myriad things carry Yin and embrace Yang, and through the blending of qi (气, vital energy), they achieve harmony." (道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物。万物负阴而抱阳，冲气以为和。)

The Xici Zhuan (Part Upper) states:

"The Yi has the Supreme Ultimate (Taiji), which generates the Two Modes (Liangyi). The Two Modes generate the Four Images (Si Xiang). The Four Images generate the Eight Trigrams (Ba Gua)." (易有太极，是生两仪，两仪生四象，四象生八卦。)

The structure of these two passages is parallel: Dao → One → Two → Three → Myriad Things; Taiji → Two Modes → Four Images → Eight Trigrams → Myriad Things. Both "Dao" and "Taiji" point to that primordial unity, the source of all transformations, the gate of all mysteries—that original unified entity before all differentiation and change occurred.

But what deserves deeper contemplation is the phrase "through the blending of qi, they achieve harmony" (冲气以为和). The way of existence of the myriad things is "carrying Yin and embracing Yang"—Yin and Yang are not in opposition but in fusion, not in conflict but in harmony. This is precisely the fundamental principle of the sixty-four hexagrams of the Zhouyi: each hexagram is a specific combination of Yin and Yang lines. There is no purely Yin or purely Yang (except for the Qian and Kun hexagrams), and the different proportions and arrangements of Yin and Yang constitute the infinite diversity of all things and all affairs.

Why does Laozi emphasize "through the blending of qi, they achieve harmony"$37 Because the relationship between Yin and Yang is not one of struggle, but of coordination. This is completely consistent with the core spirit of the Zhouyi—the Xici Zhuan states:

"One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao." (一阴一阳之谓道。)

Not "Yang overcoming Yin is called auspicious, Yin overcoming Yang is called inauspicious," but "One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao"—the interplay of Yin and Yang itself is the Dao. The Dao is not in Yin, nor in Yang, but in the interplay and movement of Yin and Yang.

The depth of this insight far surpasses the scope of divination. Divination concerns itself with "Is this matter Yin or Yang, auspicious or inauspicious$38"—it requires a clear binary judgment. But "One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao" reveals the fundamental truth that transcends binary opposition: Yin and Yang are not ends in themselves, change is the essence; auspiciousness and inauspiciousness are not fixed labels, but states that change with the times.

Section 5.2: Laozi's Discussion of "Returning" (Fan) and the Yi's "Revival" (Fu)

Another core concept in Laozi's thought—"return" (反, fan)—also deeply resonates with the fundamental spirit of the Zhouyi.

The Daodejing, Chapter 40, states:

"Returning is the movement of the Dao. Weakness is the function of the Dao. All things under Heaven are born from Being; Being is born from Non-being." (反者道之动，弱者道之用。天下万物生于有，有生于无。)

"Returning is the movement of the Dao" (反者道之动)—the Dao's mode of movement is "return": transformation towards its opposite. This is completely consistent with the principle of "when things reach their extreme, they turn around" in the Zhouyi. The very arrangement of the sixty-four hexagrams embodies this law: after Qian comes Kun, after Tai comes Pi (否), after Jiji (既济) comes Weiji (未济)—after every extreme state, there is inevitably a turning towards its opposite.

And the Fu (复, Revival) hexagram is a concentrated embodiment of this idea. The Fu hexagram's image is Thunder below Earth (☷ above ☳ below), with one Yang line at the bottom beneath five Yin lines, symbolizing the nascent Yang energy beginning to return after extreme Yin. The Tuan Zhuan (彖传, Judgment) states:

"Fu, does it not reveal the heart of Heaven and Earth!" (复，其见天地之心乎！)

"The heart of Heaven and Earth" (天地之心)—the depth of this concept is staggering. What is the "heart" of Heaven and Earth$39 Not static eternity, but the ceaseless revival and renewal. At the winter solstice, the first Yang returns, and all things begin a new cycle of growth—this is the heart of Heaven and Earth.

Why is this important$40 Because "Revival" (Fu) reveals not a "turn for the better, auspicious" in the sense of divination, but a cosmological "change will never cease, every end is a new beginning." This is a philosophical understanding of the essence of life, not a predictive judgment of specific events.

Laozi said:

"Attain the utmost emptiness, maintain the utmost stillness. The myriad things grow together, and I observe their return. Though things are abundant, each returns to its root. Returning to the root is called stillness. Stillness is called returning to destiny. Returning to destiny is called the constant. Knowing the constant is called enlightenment." (致虚极，守静笃。万物并作，吾以观复。夫物芸芸，各复归其根。归根曰静，静曰复命。复命曰常，知常曰明。)

"I observe their return" (吾以观复)—I use this to observe the law of the return of the myriad things. "Returning to the root is called stillness. Stillness is called returning to destiny" (归根曰静，静曰复命)—Returning to the root is called "stillness," stillness is called "returning to destiny." "Knowing the constant is called enlightenment" (知常曰明)—Understanding this constant law is called "enlightenment."

How similar this is to the spirit of "observing images" (观象) in the Zhouyi! Laozi "observes the return" (观复), and the sages "observe images" (观象)—both are about gaining understanding of the fundamental laws of the cosmos by calmly observing the operational principles of Heaven, Earth, and all things. This is not divination, but enlightenment of the Way.

Section 5.3: Zhuangzi's Statement on "Yi Expresses the Way of Yin and Yang"

The positioning of the function of the Zhouyi by Master Zhuangzi (庄子) leaves behind a profoundly important statement. In the "Tianxia" (天下) chapter of Zhuangzi, when discussing ancient scholarship, it states:

"The Shi expresses aspirations; the Shu expresses affairs; the Li expresses conduct; the Yue expresses harmony; the Yi expresses the Way of Yin and Yang; the Chun Qiu expresses distinctions of names." (《诗》以道志，《书》以道事，《礼》以道行，《乐》以道和，《易》以道阴阳，《春秋》以道名分。)

"The Yi expresses the Way of Yin and Yang" (《易》以道阴阳)—the function of the Yi is to expound the Way of Yin and Yang and its changes.

Please note, Master Zhuangzi does not say here "The Yi expresses good or ill fortune," nor "The Yi expresses divination," but "expresses the Way of Yin and Yang." "Expresses" (以道) here functions as a verb, meaning "to speak of," "to expound," "to reveal."

What is Yin and Yang$41 Yin and Yang are the fundamental laws governing the operation of all things under Heaven and Earth—the alternation of day and night, the passage of cold and heat, the rise and fall of hardness and softness, the cycle of life and death; behind all change are the interactions of Yin and Yang. "Expresses the Way of Yin and Yang" means revealing this fundamental law.

Master Zhuangzi juxtaposes the Yi with the Shi, Shu, Li, Yue, and Chun Qiu, assigning a core function to each classic. Shi expresses aspirations, Shu records affairs, Li guides conduct, Yue achieves harmony, Chun Qiu rectifies names—none of these functions is "divination." The function of the Yi, "expresses the Way of Yin and Yang," is also not divination, but revealing the fundamental laws of cosmic change.

This is the definitive positioning of the original function of the Zhouyi by pre-Qin Daoism: The Yi is a book of Yin-Yang philosophy.

Section 5.4: "Spirits Have No Fixed Abode, and the Yi Has No Fixed Form" — The Metaphysical Dimension of the Yi

In the Xici Zhuan (Part Upper), there is a profoundly deep statement that is often overlooked:

"Spirits have no fixed abode, and the Yi has no fixed form." (神无方而易无体。)

"Spirits have no fixed abode" (神无方)—miraculous changes are not confined to any fixed direction; "the Yi has no fixed form" (易无体)—the Way of Yi has no fixed form.

This statement directly denies the possibility of fixing the Zhouyi to any specific use (including divination). If "the Yi has no fixed form," then defining the Yi as a "book of divination" is precisely imposing a "form" upon it, isn't it$42 The essence of the Yi is fluid, open, and infinite—it can be used for divination, but also for self-cultivation, governing the state, observing images, and making artifacts, yet it is not equivalent to any single specific application.

Laozi said:

"The Dao that can be spoken is not the eternal Dao. The name that can be named is not the eternal name." (道可道，非常道。名可名，非常名。)

Zhuangzi said:

"The Dao cannot be heard, for what is heard is not it; the Dao cannot be seen, for what is seen is not it; the Dao cannot be spoken, for what is spoken is not it. Do you understand the formless nature of form$43 The Dao should not be named." (道不可闻，闻而非也；道不可见，见而非也；道不可言，言而非也。知形形之不形乎？道不当名。) (Zhuangzi, "Zhi Bei You" chapter)

"The Dao should not be named" (道不当名)—the Dao should not be fixed by any name. Similarly, "the Yi has no fixed form" (易无体)—the Yi should not be limited by any fixed definition of function.

To understand the Zhouyi merely as a book of divination is precisely a "formed" understanding—it compresses the infinite Way of Yi into a finite tool. But the original spirit of the Zhouyi is precisely formless, infinite, and open to all possibilities.

Chapter 6: "Heaven and Earth Established Their Positions, and the Yi Operated Within Them" — A Comprehensive Reconstruction of the Original Function of the Yi

Section 6.1: From "Bu" to "Guan" — A Revolution in Cognitive Methods

Synthesizing the above investigations, we can attempt to reconstruct the basic features of the original function of the Zhouyi.

The birth of the Zhouyi represents a fundamental revolution in ancient cognitive methods—a shift from "Bu" (divination) to "Guan" (observation).

The cognitive model of "Bu" is: Human → Ask → Spirit → Answer → Human Obeys. Humans are passive recipients, spirits are the sole source of knowledge, and human roles are limited to asking questions and executing answers.

The cognitive model of "Guan" is: Human → Observe → Heaven, Earth, and Myriad Things → Principles → Human Application. Humans are active cognitive subjects, Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things are the source of knowledge, and human roles are to observe, categorize, abstract, and apply.

The Xici Zhuan provides the most concise expression for this:

"Looking up, one observes the astronomical phenomena; looking down, one examines the terrestrial patterns. Thus, one understands the causes of obscurity and clarity." (仰以观于天文，俯以察于地理，是故知幽明之故。)

"Understand the causes of obscurity and clarity" (知幽明之故)—to understand the fundamental reasons for the causes and effects between the hidden and the manifest. This is cognition, not prediction; it is understanding, not prying.

"Tracing back to the origin and returning to the end, thus one understands the discourse on life and death." (原始反终，故知死生之说。)

"Tracing back to the origin and returning to the end" (原始反终)—to trace the origin of things, to investigate their end, and thus to understand the principles of life and death. This is a philosophical inquiry, not a utilitarian pursuit of advantage or avoidance of harm.

"The essential qi becomes matter; the wandering soul becomes change. Thus, one understands the forms and conditions of spirits and ghosts." (精气为物，游魂为变，是故知鬼神之情状。)

"Understand the forms and conditions of spirits and ghosts" (知鬼神之情状)—to understand the internal logic of the operation of spirits and ghosts. Note: not "seek the protection of spirits," not "ask for the will of spirits," but "know" their "forms and conditions"—to understand spirits from the perspective of a cognizer, rather than looking up to them from the posture of a petitioner.

These three phrases, "know" (知), clearly outline the scope of the original function of the Zhouyi: it is a book of "knowing" (知)—a systematic cognition concerning Heaven and Earth, life and death, and spirits and ghosts.

Section 6.2: The Zhouyi as the Core of Ancient "General Education"

If we synthesize the descriptions of the functions of the Yi in pre-Qin literature, we find a clear picture: The Yi was a core subject in the aristocratic education system of the pre-Qin period, and its function extended far beyond divination.

"Pure, tranquil, subtle, and minute—this is the teaching of the Yi" (洁静精微，《易》教也)—this is its educational function. "In speech, the emphasis is on the words" (以言者尚其辞)—this is training in rhetoric and expression. "In action, the emphasis is on change" (以动者尚其变)—this is guidance for decision-making and action. "In making artifacts, the emphasis is on images" (以制器者尚其象)—this is inspiration for technological creation. "In divination, the emphasis is on prognostication" (以卜筮者尚其占)—this is the application of divination and prediction.

Among the four functions, divination accounts for only one, and is listed last. The first three functions—rhetoric, decision-making, and creation—are unrelated to divination; they point towards a comprehensive cultivation of character and wisdom training.

The Xici Zhuan states:

"The Yi, it is through this that the sage deeply probes and minutely examines. Because it is deep, it can connect with the aspirations of all under Heaven. Because it is minute, it can complete the tasks of all under Heaven. Because it is spiritual, it is swift without haste, arrives without moving." (夫《易》，圣人之所以极深而研几也。唯深也，故能通天下之志。唯几也，故能成天下之务。唯神也，故不疾而速，不行而至。)

"Deeply probes and minutely examines" (极深而研几)—to probe the deepest parts of things, to examine the subtlest signs of change. What kind of ability is this$44 It is penetration—a keen wisdom that can see the deep principles through surface phenomena, and perceive the slightest hint of change before it becomes significant.

Does cultivating this ability require divination$45 No. What is required is long-term observational training, in-depth thinking training, and keen perceptual training. This is completely consistent with Confucius's spirit of "devoting fifty years to the study of the Yi"—studying the Yi is a cultivation of the mind, not an operational technique.

Section 6.3: Why Did the Divinatory Function "Overshadow the Main Guest"$46

So, if the original function of the Zhouyi was not divination, why did it later come to be primarily regarded as a book of divination$47 This question is also worth deep consideration.

The reasons may be severalfold:

First, the inertia of the shamanic-historical tradition. In ancient society, all knowledge systems related to communication between Heaven and humanity tended to be classified under the category of "shamanism." Although the Zhouyi had spiritually surpassed shamanism, its form—using yarrow, operating Shi divination, generating hexagrams—still retained many external features of shamanic rituals. Ordinary people, seeing these external forms, naturally equated it with divination.

Second, the drive of social demand. Pre-Qin society (especially the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods) was plagued by frequent wars and turbulent situations, leading to a strong psychological desire for "knowing the future." As a precise image-number system, the Zhouyi was easily borrowed as a tool for divination—because it indeed provided a complete symbolic system and operational procedure. But "can be used for divination" and "is essentially a book of divination" are two different things. A kitchen knife can be used to injure someone, but it is essentially a kitchen utensil, not a weapon.

Third, the divergence between "learning from below" and "reaching above." Confucius said: "Learning from below and reaching above." For most people, the entry point to the Zhouyi was divination—this is "learning from below." But true "reaching above" is grasping the Way of Change and cultivating the virtues of purity, tranquility, subtlety, and minuteness. Master Xunzi's statement, "The master of Yi does not divine," precisely describes the transition from "learning from below" to "reaching above." Unfortunately, most people remained at the level of "learning from below," so the divinatory function "overshadowed the main guest," obscuring the true spirit of the Zhouyi.

The Xici Zhuan itself was aware of this danger:

"The Master said, 'He who knows the Way of change, does he not know what the spirits do$48'" (子曰：“知变化之道者，其知神之所为乎！”)

"He who knows the Way of change" (知变化之道者)—only those who truly understand the Way of Change can know what "spirits" (here referring to the miraculous workings of the Way of Yi) are doing. As for those who do not understand the Way of Change$49 They can only attribute the miraculousness of Yi to the intervention of some supernatural force—this is the root of its superstitious and divinatory popularization.

Section 6.4: Inquiring into the Fundamentals: What Was the Original Function of the Yi$50

After layer-by-layer analysis, we can offer a comprehensive answer:

The original function of the Zhouyi was a symbolic system and thinking tool created by ancient peoples to understand and describe the laws of cosmic change.

Specifically, it included at least the following levels of function:

I. Cosmological Function—Establishing a cosmological model describing the birth, change, and demise of Heaven, Earth, and all things through the symbolic system of Yin and Yang, Eight Trigrams, and sixty-four hexagrams. "The Yi has the Supreme Ultimate, which generates the Two Modes. The Two Modes generate the Four Images. The Four Images generate the Eight Trigrams"—this is a complete cosmology.

II. Epistemological Function—Through the method of "observing images" (观象), abstracting universal laws of change from astronomy, geography, and human affairs. "Looking up, one observes the astronomical phenomena; looking down, one examines the terrestrial patterns. Thus, one understands the causes of obscurity and clarity"—this is a systematic epistemology.

III. Practical Function—Providing wisdom guidance for human actions in various situations through hexagram images and line statements. "In action, the emphasis is on change"—this is a guide for action and decision-making.

IV. Educational Function—Cultivating personal qualities of "pure, tranquil, subtle, and minute" and intellectual abilities of "deeply probing and minutely examining" through the process of studying the Yi. This is a course in mental cultivation.

V. Technological Function—Inspiring technological creation and social system construction through hexagram images. "In making artifacts, the emphasis is on images"—this is a tool for stimulating innovative thinking.

VI. Divinatory Function—Based on the above five functions, the Yi can indeed be used for divination—but this is only one of its many functions, and the most superficial one.

We can even boldly say: The Zhouyi is the earliest "meta-knowledge system" of Chinese civilization—a knowledge about knowledge itself, a study about change itself, an order about order itself. It does not answer specific questions, but provides a basic framework for answering all questions.

Chapter 7: Conclusion: The Significance of Returning to the Source

The Xici Zhuan (Part Lower) concludes with a passage that seems to be a prophecy of the Zhouyi's own fate:

"Did the Yi emerge in the middle ages$51 Did the creators of the Yi have worries$52" (《易》之兴也，其于中古乎？作《易》者，其有忧患乎？)

"Did the creators of the Yi have worries$53" (作《易》者，其有忧患乎？)—Were the creators of the Yi motivated by worries$54

The answer to this question is both "yes" and "no."

"Yes"—because the Yi indeed arose from worries. Facing the vastness of Heaven and Earth, the infinity of change, and the uncertainty of life, the ancients felt their own insignificance and powerlessness, and thus longed to understand the laws of change, to find order amidst turmoil, and to establish certainty amidst the unknown.

"No"—because the realm the Yi reaches surpasses worries. When a person truly grasps the truth of "One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao," understands that change itself is the essence of the cosmos, and accepts the law that "when blocked, change; when changed, it leads to passage; when passed, it leads to longevity," they no longer need to worry. Because they know: there is no eternal misfortune, nor eternal good fortune; there is no absolute end, nor absolute beginning—there is only eternal change, eternal flow, and eternal ceaseless generation.

The Xici Zhuan (Part Upper) concludes with a sentence:

"Heaven and Earth established their positions, and the Yi operated within them. Preserving and enriching one's innate nature, this is the gate of the Way and righteousness." (天地设位而易行乎其中矣。成性存存，道义之门。)

Heaven and Earth established their positions, and the "Yi"—the Way of Change—operates between Heaven and Earth. Preserving and enriching one's innate nature, this is the gate of the Way and righteousness.

"The Yi operated within them" (易行乎其中)—the Way of Yi is not in Heaven, not in Earth, not on tortoise shells, not in yarrow stalks, but between Heaven and Earth—that is, within each of our lives.

When we shift our gaze from the structure of the oracle bone script of "Shi" all the way back to the profound elaborations of pre-Qin Confucian and Daoist schools, a clear conclusion emerges: The Zhouyi was not originally created for divination. It was the first response of the ancient Chinese people when faced with the vast cosmos—a response to the questions: "What is change$55 Where is order$56 How should humanity be$57"

This answer, traversing thousands of years, still echoes between Heaven and Earth today.

The master of Yi does not divine. Because those who truly understand the Way of Change no longer need to seek answers externally—the answers lie within change itself.

"The Yi, it opens things and completes affairs, it covers the Way of all under Heaven. Thus it is. Therefore, the sage uses it to connect the aspirations of all under Heaven, to establish the achievements of all under Heaven, and to resolve the doubts of all under Heaven."— Xici Zhuan (Appended Sayings) Part Upper

Xuanji Editorial Department

The pre-Qin texts cited in this article include: Zhouyi: Xici Zhuan (Part Upper), Zhouyi: Xici Zhuan (Part Lower), Zhouyi: Shuogua Zhuan, Zhouyi: Tuan Zhuan, Analects: Xueer, Analects: Zi Lu, Xunzi: Da Lue, Zhuangzi: Tianxia, Zhuangzi: Zhi Bei You, Daodejing Chapters 40, 42, 16, 1, Guoyu: Chu Yu Xia, Guoyu: Jin Yu Si, Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xi's 15th Year, Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xiang's 25th Year, Book of Rites: Jing Jie, Rites of Zhou: Chun Guan: Da Bu, and others. All discussions in this article are strictly limited to the perspective of pre-Qin literature.