Chapter Seventeen: Deep Questions -- The Fundamental Problems This Passage of the Neiye Leaves for Later Ages

I. Can the Cultivation of Vital Essence Truly Attain the Realm of "Spirit-Like"$58

This is the most fundamental question the Neiye leaves behind. The entire passage describes an ideal progression from the cultivation of vital essence to the state of "the myriad things fully present within" and spirit-like responsiveness. But can this realm actually be reached$59

From pre-Qin historical records, there were indeed individuals credited with attaining very high levels of cultivation. The Zhuangzi, "Xiao Yao You" (Free and Easy Wandering), describes: "On the distant mountain of Gushe there lives a spirit-person. His skin is like ice and snow; he is graceful as a maiden. He does not eat the five grains but breathes the wind and drinks the dew. He rides the clouds, mounts flying dragons, and wanders beyond the four seas." This is a literary depiction, but behind it lies the pre-Qin imagination of the realm of "concentrating qi as though spirit-like."

A more realistic description is found in the Zhuangzi, "Yang Sheng Zhu" (The Secret of Caring for Life), in the story of Cook Ding carving an ox: "What your servant cares about is the Dao, which goes beyond mere skill. When I first began cutting up oxen, all I could see was the ox itself. After three years, I no longer saw the whole ox. Now I go at it by spirit and do not look with my eyes; my senses have stopped and spirit moves where it will." Through long cultivation, Cook Ding reached the state of "going by spirit rather than looking with the eyes" -- the senses stopped while the spirit operated. Although this manifested in the specific craft of butchery, the underlying cultivation principle is identical to that of the Neiye.

II. "Not by the Power of Spirits and Gods, but Through the Pinnacle of Vital Essence" -- Does This Mean Spirits and Gods Do Not Exist$1

The Neiye says "not by the power of spirits and gods" but does not say "spirits and gods do not exist." This is a subtle but important distinction.

The mainstream of pre-Qin thought did not deny the existence of spirits and gods but denied their direct intervention in human affairs. Zuozhuan, Duke Xi, Year 5, Gong Zhiqi: "Spirits and gods do not favor persons for their own sake but attend only upon virtue." And Zuozhuan, Duke Zhuang, Year 32: "When a state is about to rise, it heeds the people; when about to fall, it heeds the spirits."

The stance of the Neiye is consistent: spirits and gods may exist, but the supra-ordinary experience the cultivator undergoes in deep practice is not the assistance of spirits and gods but the natural development of one's own vital essence. This is not a denial of spirits and gods but an affirmation of human potential -- one need not depend on spirits and gods; by oneself alone one can reach a state "as though spirit-like."

This position was remarkably advanced in the pre-Qin era. It neither fell into superstition (reliance on spirits and gods) nor tipped into nihilism (the denial of all transcendent existence), but took a middle path -- acknowledging the reality of supra-ordinary experience while providing a natural-philosophical explanation for it.

III. "When Qi and Intent Are Aligned, All Under Heaven Submit" -- Is This Politically Practicable$2

This is a question posed from the standpoint of political philosophy. If governing the world requires not rewards and punishments but only the ruler's own "qi-intent aligned" and "heart-intent settled," is this feasible in actual political practice$3

From the historical experience of the pre-Qin era, the answer is complex:

Positive case: Duke Huan of Qi, under Guan Zhong's guidance, achieved hegemony over the world, and a key factor was Huan's ability to "trust Guan Zhong as he trusted his own parents" -- this absolute trust was itself an expression of "benevolent qi greeting others." And Guan Zhong's governance relied not solely on rewards and punishments but on ordering society, developing the economy, and respecting the will of the people -- all of which required the ruler to possess the inner qualities of "qi-intent aligned" and "heart-intent settled."

Negative case: Even a sage such as the Master (Confucius) was unable to fully realize the ideal of "qi-intent aligned, all under Heaven submit" in political practice. The Master traveled among the states for fourteen years yet was never given significant office by any lord. Does this mean "qi-intent aligned" is insufficient to govern the world$4

Two explanations are possible:

1. The Master's "qi-intent" was indeed very high, but the circumstances were unfavorable: in the chaos of the Warring States, the feudal lords cared only about military power and profit and had no leisure for moral virtue. Even the highest inner cultivation cannot be implemented if external conditions do not allow it.
2. "When qi and intent are aligned, all under Heaven submit" describes an ideal state: when the ruler's qi-intent cultivation reaches its true pinnacle, the power of attraction is irresistible. The Master, though great, may not have reached that absolute pinnacle.

Either explanation shows that the political ideal of the Neiye sets an extremely high standard and in practice requires the conjunction of many conditions.

IV. "Attain the Balance of Proper Measure, and It Will Come of Its Own Accord" -- Human Effort or Nature$5

A final question: is cultivation ultimately a matter of human effort or of nature$6

If the Dao is natural ("it will come of its own accord"), why is human effort (cultivation) needed ("four limbs aligned, blood-qi calm, intent unified and heart concentrated")$7 If human effort is needed, how can the Dao be said to "come of its own accord"$8

The resolution of this apparent contradiction lies in this: the purpose of cultivation is not to create the Dao but to remove the obstacles that veil it. The Dao is already present; human cultivation merely clears away what obscures it (excessive desire, scattered thoughts, a misaligned body). Once the obstacles are removed, the Dao naturally appears -- this is "it will come of its own accord."

An analogy: the sun is always shining in the sky, but clouds have obscured it. Cultivation is not creating the sun but parting the clouds. When the clouds disperse, the sun naturally shines -- that is "coming of its own accord." But parting the clouds requires human effort -- that is cultivation.

This explanation perfectly reconciles the tension between human effort and nature, and also explains why the Neiye both demands active practice ("think on it, think on it") and cautions against excess ("do not push to the extreme"): the purpose of cultivation is to remove obstacles, not to produce something new. Excessive cultivation itself becomes a new obstacle -- this is "if one thinks without ceasing, one is internally depleted and externally worn thin."