Chapter Ten: Resonances and Mutual Illumination Among Pre-Qin Thinkers

Section 1: Resonance with the Four Chapters of the Guanzi

Master Xun's cognitive theory has an extremely close resonance with the four chapters "Xinshu Shang," "Xinshu Xia," "Baixin," and "Neiye" of the Guanzi.

The Guanzi, "Neiye," says:

"As for the form of the mind: it fills itself, replenishes itself, generates itself, completes itself. What causes it to be lost is invariably worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, and profit-seeking. If one can remove worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, and profit-seeking, the mind will return to its full capacity. The true disposition of the mind is to seek peace and tranquility. Do not vex it, do not disorder it, and harmony will naturally arise. It flickers as though at one's side, then vanishes as though beyond one's grasp, then stretches infinitely as though without limit. This is not far to seek -- one uses its virtue daily."

The mind inherently possesses the capacity for self-fulfillment and self-perfection. But emotions and desires -- worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, profit-seeking -- cause the mind to lose this capacity. Removing these disturbances allows the mind to recover its original function.

This passage structurally resonates with Master Xun's "xu, yi, and jing":

"Removing worry, joy, delight, anger, desire, and profit-seeking" corresponds to xu (not letting existing emotions and desires impede the mind's receptivity).

"The mind returns to its full capacity" corresponds to da qingming (the mind returning to its clear state).

"Seeking peace and tranquility, neither vexed nor disordered" corresponds to jing (not letting chaotic mental activity disrupt clear cognition).

The Guanzi, "Xinshu Shang," further develops the theory of the mind:

"The mind's position in the body is that of a sovereign. The nine apertures each have their duties, like officials with their allotted roles. When the mind abides in its proper Way, the nine apertures follow principle."

"The art of the mind is to govern the apertures through non-action."

"The art of the mind" is to "govern the apertures through non-action." The mind need not do anything specific; it need only abide in the proper Way, and the nine apertures will naturally follow principle. This is fully consistent with Master Xun's reasoning that "unified with the Way, one is upright" -- if the mind is "unified with the Way," all things naturally find their proper place.

"Empty your desires, and the spirit will enter its dwelling. Sweep away impurities, and the spirit will abide."

Making the desires in the mind empty, the "spirit" (spiritual power) will enter its dwelling. Sweeping away impurities, the "spirit" will remain. Here, "emptying desires" directly corresponds to Master Xun's xu; "sweeping away impurities" corresponds to "dispelling obscuration"; and "the spirit entering its dwelling" corresponds to da qingming.

Section 2: Resonance with the Laozi

Master Xun's cognitive theory resonates deeply with the thought of the Most High (Laozi), despite their different overall philosophical orientations.

On xu:

The Most High (Laozi) said:

"Attain the utmost of xu; hold fast to the depth of stillness." (Daodejing, Chapter 16)

"The Way is like an empty vessel; its use is inexhaustible. Fathomless -- it seems the ancestor of all things." (Daodejing, Chapter 4)

"The Way is empty" -- the Way is xu -- "yet its use is inexhaustible." This resonates deeply with Master Xun's concept of xu -- xu is not vacancy but infinite potentiality.

On jing:

"Returning to the root is called stillness; stillness is called returning to destiny." (Daodejing, Chapter 16)

"The heavy is the root of the light; the still is the master of the restless." (Daodejing, Chapter 26)

The Most High (Laozi) regarded jing as "the root" -- the ultimate destination of all things -- and "the master" -- the ruler of restlessness. This is consistent with Master Xun's view of jing as the foundational condition for cognition.

On ming:

"To know others is wisdom; to know oneself is ming." (Daodejing, Chapter 33)

"To see the small is called ming." (Daodejing, Chapter 52)

The Most High (Laozi) emphasized self-knowledge and the perception of the subtle in his concept of ming. Master Xun's da qingming emphasizes comprehensiveness and thoroughness. The two complement each other -- true ming involves both self-knowledge and subtlety on one hand, and comprehensiveness and thoroughness on the other.

On "the one":

"The sage embraces the one and becomes the model for the world." (Daodejing, Chapter 22)

"Of old, those that attained the one: Heaven attained the one and became clear; Earth attained the one and became tranquil." (Daodejing, Chapter 39)

The Most High's "embracing the one" and Master Xun's yi share a common core -- holding fast to the unified fundamental principle.

Yet the differences are also significant. The Most High's xu and jing are primarily ontological -- they are the nature of the Way itself. Master Xun's xu and jing are primarily a matter of cultivation (gongfu) -- they are states the mind must cultivate. This difference reflects the divergent philosophical concerns of Daoism and Confucianism: Daoism attends to the natural state of "the Way"; Confucianism attends to the cultivation of "the mind."

Section 3: Resonance with the Zhuangzi

The thought of Master Zhuang contains much that resonates with Master Xun's cognitive theory.

On xu:

"The Way collects only in emptiness. Emptiness is the fasting of the mind (xin zhai)." (Zhuangzi, "Ren Jian Shi")

The Way gathers only in the empty place. Emptiness is "the fasting of the mind." Master Zhuang's concept of "the fasting of the mind" resonates directly with Master Xun's xu -- both involve keeping the mind empty in order to receive the Way.

Yan Hui asked the Master what "the fasting of the mind" meant. The Master replied:

"Unify your will. Do not listen with the ears but with the mind; do not listen with the mind but with the vital breath (qi). Hearing stops at the ear; the mind stops at matching. Vital breath is empty and awaits things. Only the Way collects in emptiness. Emptiness -- this is the fasting of the mind."

"Unify your will" (ruo yi zhi) -- yi. "Do not listen with the ears but with the mind" -- not using sensory organs but the mind. "Do not listen with the mind but with the vital breath" -- not even using the mind but the vital breath. "Vital breath is empty and awaits things" -- the vital breath is xu, waiting for all things.

This passage reveals three levels of cognition: the sensory level (ears) -- the mental level (mind) -- the level of the Way (vital breath/xu). At the highest level, the cognitive subject has become entirely "xu-ified" -- no longer clinging to any existing cognitive framework but meeting all things with a state of complete openness.

Though expressed differently, this resonates in spirit with Master Xun's xu of "not letting what has been stored impede what is yet to be received."

On jing and "the mirror":

"People do not mirror themselves in flowing water but in still water. Only the still can still all seekers of stillness." (Zhuangzi, "De Chong Fu")

As discussed above, this is entirely consistent with Master Xun's basin metaphor.

On bi (Master Zhuang used the term "completed mind" -- cheng xin):

"If one follows one's completed mind and takes it as one's teacher, who could be without such a teacher$8 Must one possess the understanding of alternation, with the mind selecting of its own$9 The fool has just as much claim. To have 'right' and 'wrong' before the mind has been formed is to arrive in Yue today while having departed yesterday." (Zhuangzi, "Qi Wu Lun")

"Completed mind" (cheng xin) -- preformed prejudice. If one follows one's preexisting prejudice as a guide, who would be without such a "teacher"$10 This is Master Zhuang's version of bi -- preexisting cognition (the "completed mind") obscures open reception of new things.

Master Xun said "do not let what has been stored impede what is yet to be received"; Master Zhuang said do not "follow one's completed mind and take it as one's teacher" -- both criticize the same cognitive failing.

On "viewing from the perspective of things" versus "viewing from the perspective of the Way":

"Viewed from the perspective of the Way, things have no distinction of noble and base. Viewed from the perspective of things, each considers itself noble and others base. Viewed from the perspective of convention, nobility and baseness do not reside in oneself." (Zhuangzi, "Qiu Shui")

Viewed from the Way's perspective, all things are without distinction of noble and base. Viewed from the perspective of things, each thing considers itself noble and others base. This resonates deeply with Master Xun's distinction between "one who masters things manages things with things" and "one who masters the Way manages all things comprehensively" -- "viewing from the perspective of things" is "mastering things"; "viewing from the perspective of the Way" is "mastering the Way."

Section 4: Resonance with the Mengzi

The thought of Master Meng also contains much that resonates with Master Xun's cognitive theory.

On the status of the mind:

"The office of the mind is thinking. Thinking, one attains it; not thinking, one does not. This is what Heaven has given us. If one first establishes the greater part, the lesser parts cannot usurp it." (Mengzi, "Gaozi Shang")

The mind's function is to think. First establish the mind's leadership (the "greater part"), and the senses (the "lesser parts") cannot disturb it. This directly corresponds to Master Xun's "the mind is the sovereign of the body."

On yi:

The story of Master Yi Qiu teaching chess has already been cited and need not be repeated. In addition, Master Meng offered another important statement:

"Master Meng said: 'Do not do what you should not do; do not desire what you should not desire -- that is all.'" (Mengzi, "Jin Xin Shang")

Do not do what should not be done; do not desire what should not be desired -- that is all. This extremely spare formulation conceals a deep understanding of yi -- concentrate the mind on what "should be done" and "should be desired," and do not let things that should not be done or desired scatter one's mental energy.

On "nourishing the vital breath" and "nourishing the mind":

"I am skilled at nourishing my vast, flowing vital breath (haoran zhi qi). ... This breath is supremely great and supremely firm; nourish it with uprightness and do it no harm, and it fills the space between heaven and earth." (Mengzi, "Gongsun Chou Shang")

Master Meng's doctrine of "nourishing the vital breath" resonates with Master Xun's "nourish it with clarity" -- both emphasize long-term cultivation to maintain the righteous grandeur of the mind/breath.

"There is no better method for nourishing the mind than reducing desires. If a person has few desires, though there may be things he has lost, they will be few. If a person has many desires, though there may be things he has preserved, they will be few." (Mengzi, "Jin Xin Xia")

The best method for nourishing the mind is reducing desires. "Reducing desires" is precisely a concrete practice of xu -- diminishing the diverse desires in the mind, preserving its spaciousness and openness.

Section 5: Resonance and Contrast with the Mozi

Though Master Xun criticized Master Mo in the "Jiebi" chapter for being "obscured by utility and blind to cultural refinement," the two share some commonalities in cognitive method.

The Mozi, "Jing Shang," offers a classification of "knowing":

"Knowing: by hearsay (wen), by inference (shuo), by personal experience (qin). Names, realities, matching, and acting."

Knowledge has three sources: hearsay, inference, and personal experience. This is one of the earliest systematic cognitive classifications in pre-Qin thought.

Master Mo's cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of experience and inference, which differs from Master Xun's emphasis on the state of the mind (xu, yi, and jing) as the decisive factor in cognition. But the two are not contradictory: Master Mo attended to the "sources" of cognition (from where knowledge is obtained); Master Xun attended to the "conditions" of cognition (in what state the mind must be to correctly acquire and process knowledge).

Combined, the two form a more complete cognitive picture: knowledge comes from hearsay, inference, and personal experience (Master Mo); but correctly acquiring and processing this knowledge requires the mind's xu, yi, and jing (Master Xun).

Section 6: Resonance with the Yijing

The cognitive thought of the Yijing has a deep structural resonance with Master Xun's theory.

On "observation" (guan):

The Yijing's twentieth hexagram, Guan (Observation), is devoted to the theme of observation and cognition.

The hexagram statement of Guan reads:

"Observation: the ablution has been performed but the offering has not yet been made. There is sincerity; the countenance is reverently uplifted."

The key to observation lies in "sincerity" (you fu) -- inner truthfulness -- and "reverently uplifted" (yong ruo) -- a posture of reverence. This suggests that guan is not merely a sensory activity but a spiritual one. Only the person whose heart is sincere and whose attitude is reverent can truly "observe" the essence of things.

The six lines of the Guan hexagram, from bottom to top, display different levels of observation:

Initial Six: "Childish observation" -- naive, superficial observation. Six in the Second Place: "Peeping observation" -- partial observation, as through a crack in the door. Six in the Third Place: "Observing one's own life" -- turning the gaze inward. Six in the Fourth Place: "Observing the splendor of the state" -- observing a nation's culture and spirit. Nine in the Fifth Place: "Observing one's own life" -- self-examination from a higher vantage. Top Nine: "Observing others' lives" -- observing the lives and conduct of others.

From "childish observation" to "observing others' lives," the levels of observation rise ever higher, the vista broadens, and understanding deepens. This progressive deepening corresponds to Master Xun's cognitive ascent from bi to da qingming.

On "spirit" (shen):

"Spirit is the word for that which works wonders in all things." (Yijing, "Shuo Gua")

"What is unfathomable in the interplay of yin and yang is called spirit." (Yijing, "Xici Shang")

Shen is the capacity to grasp the subtle transformations of all things. This is directly related to Master Xun's shenming.

"Therefore the virtue of the milfoil stalks is round and spiritual; the virtue of the hexagrams is square and wise." (Yijing, "Xici Shang")

The virtue of the milfoil stalks is circular and spiritual; the virtue of the hexagrams is square and wise. Shen and zhi (knowing) are here complementary -- shen is responsible for spiritual communion with the subtle; zhi is responsible for clear judgment. Together they constitute what Master Xun called shenming.

Section 7: Resonance with the Daxue and Zhongyong

The Daxue (Great Learning) and Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean), as important texts of pre-Qin Confucian learning, resonate with Master Xun's cognitive theory in multiple ways.

The "Eight Steps" of the Daxue and "xu, yi, and jing":

"The ancients who wished to make bright virtue shine throughout the realm first ordered their states; those who wished to order their states first regulated their families; those who wished to regulate their families first cultivated their persons; those who wished to cultivate their persons first rectified their minds; those who wished to rectify their minds first made their intentions sincere; those who wished to make their intentions sincere first extended their knowledge. The extension of knowledge lies in the investigation of things."

Within this layered, progressive structure, "rectifying the mind" (zheng xin) and "extending knowledge" (zhi zhi) are the pivotal steps. "Rectifying the mind" corresponds to Master Xun's yi and jing -- making the mind upright and stable. "The extension of knowledge lies in the investigation of things" -- extending knowledge by exhaustively investigating the principles of things -- corresponds to Master Xun's method of "verifying and assessing things to achieve perspicacity."

"When the mind is not present, one looks but does not see, listens but does not hear, eats but does not taste."

"When the mind is not present" (xin bu zai yan) -- when the mind is not concentrated -- sensory functions are impaired. This is fully consistent with Master Xun's observation that "when the mind is scattered, it cannot truly know."

The "sincerity" (cheng) of the Zhongyong and yi:

"Sincerity is the Way of Heaven; becoming sincere is the Way of humanity. The sincere person hits the mark without effort, grasps it without deliberation, naturally and at ease accords with the Way -- such is the sage."

Cheng -- genuineness, singularity of purpose -- is the Way of Heaven. The sage's cheng is spontaneous -- "hitting the mark without effort, grasping without deliberation." This is consonant with Master Xun's description of the sage who "gives free rein to his desires, embraces all his feelings, yet what governs them is principle" -- both describe the highest state in which one accords with the Way without deliberate effort.

"Only the most sincere under heaven can fully realize their nature; able to fully realize their own nature, they can fully realize the nature of others; able to fully realize the nature of others, they can fully realize the nature of things; able to fully realize the nature of things, they can assist the transforming and nurturing of heaven and earth; able to assist the transforming and nurturing of heaven and earth, they can form a triad with heaven and earth."

The most sincere can "form a triad with heaven and earth" (yu tiandi can) -- stand alongside heaven and earth. This resonates beautifully with Master Xun's description of the da qingming state as one of "weaving the warp and weft of heaven and earth and assigning each thing its proper function" -- both portray the cosmic dimension that the mind achieves at its highest level.