Chapter Nine: Mind and Knowing in the Myths and Folk Traditions of High Antiquity

Section 1: The Archaic Image of "the Mind"

In the culture of high antiquity, "the mind" (xin) was not merely the name of a bodily organ but a cultural symbol bearing rich symbolic significance.

The oracle-bone script form of the character xin is a pictograph of the human heart. Through the slaughter of animals and the practice of sacrifice, the ancient ancestors observed the shape and function of the heart -- it beats ceaselessly, sending blood to every part of the body. This observation led them to recognize that the heart is the body's central organ and the key to sustaining life.

From this humble observation, the spiritual significance of "the mind" gradually emerged -- the mind is not only the body's center but also the center of the spirit. Thought, emotion, and will were all understood to originate in "the mind."

This concept of "the mind" is found everywhere in pre-Qin texts:

"When two people are of one mind, their sharpness can cut through metal. The words of those in accord are fragrant as orchids." (Yijing, "Xici Shang")

When two people unite their minds, their combined force can sever metal. Here, "mind" signifies will and direction.

"My heart is full of grief, like wearing unwashed clothes. I think of it in silence -- I cannot rise and fly." (Shijing, "Bei Feng," "Bai Zhou")

The heart's grief is like wearing soiled garments. Here, "mind" is the seat of emotions.

"Others have minds; I gauge and fathom them." (Shijing, "Xiao Ya," "Qiao Yan")

Others have thoughts and intentions; I try to discern them. Here, "mind" means thought and intention.

In the worldview of the ancient ancestors, the "mind" was the nexus through which a person communicated with heaven and earth. The vital qi of heaven and earth entered the human body through the "mind," bestowing life and wisdom. If the "mind" was clear, it could smoothly receive the vital qi of heaven and earth; if the "mind" was turbid, it would obstruct the flow of vital qi.

This conception has a deep connection with Master Xun's "xu, yi, and jing" -- xu, yi, and jing keep the mind clear and open, enabling it to fully exercise its cognitive and spiritual functions.

Section 2: The Ancient Concept of "Spiritual Illumination" and Its Relationship to the Mind

Shenming (spiritual illumination) is an extremely important concept in pre-Qin thought; Master Xun said the mind is "the master of shenming." What was the content of shenming in the culture of high antiquity$1

In the religious beliefs of high antiquity, shen referred to the numinous forces in heaven and earth that transcended ordinary understanding -- the deities of sun, moon, and stars, of mountains and rivers, of wind, rain, thunder, and lightning. Ming referred to the extraordinary cognitive capacity these spirits possessed -- they could perceive everything in the human world, seeing all, knowing all.

Shenming combined signified this extraordinary, all-perceiving power.

In the archaic shamanic tradition, the shaman was believed to be able to receive the bestowal of shenming -- extraordinary cognitive capacity. Through specific rituals and cultivation, the shaman's "mind" entered a special state, enabling communion with heaven and earth and perception of all things.

When pre-Qin philosophers transferred the concept of shenming from the shamanic context to the philosophical context, its meaning underwent a subtle shift: it no longer signified a supernatural numinous force but rather the highest cognitive capacity that the human mind displays when in its optimal state.

Master Xun's assertion that "the mind is ... the master of shenming" fully internalized shenming as a function of the mind -- shenming does not come from external deities but is a potentiality inherent in the mind itself.

This transformation marks an important crossing in pre-Qin thought, from religion to philosophy, from myth to reason.

Section 3: The Ancient Tradition of "Observing Phenomena" and Cognition

The ancient ancestors had an extremely important cultural tradition -- "observing phenomena" (guan xiang).

The Yijing, "Xici Shang," says:

"In ancient times, when Lord Baoxi (Fuxi) ruled the world, he looked upward and observed the phenomena of heaven, looked downward and observed the patterns of earth, observed the markings of birds and beasts and the features of the land, drew near and took from his own body, drew far and took from things -- and thereupon first created the eight trigrams, to penetrate the virtue of spiritual illumination and to classify the natures of all things."

Lord Fuxi gazed upward at the phenomena of heaven, downward at the patterns of earth, observed the markings of birds and beasts and the features of the land, drew examples from his own body nearby and from things afar -- and thereby created the eight trigrams: "to penetrate the virtue of spiritual illumination and to classify the natures of all things."

This passage reveals the basic pattern of cognitive activity in high antiquity:

Step one: observation. "He looked upward and observed the phenomena of heaven, looked downward and observed the patterns of earth" -- broadly observing all phenomena of heaven and earth.

Step two: induction. "Drew near and took from his own body, drew far and took from things" -- organizing and classifying the observed phenomena, seeking the patterns within them.

Step three: creation. "Thereupon first created the eight trigrams" -- on the basis of grasped patterns, creating a symbolic system to express and apply them.

Step four: penetration. "To penetrate the virtue of spiritual illumination and to classify the natures of all things" -- through the symbolic system, attaining the cognitive state of perceiving all things and penetrating spiritual illumination.

In this cognitive model, "observation" (guan) is the central link. And what is the prerequisite for guan$2 Precisely the clarity and concentration of the mind. If the mind is disturbed by stray thoughts, accurate observation is impossible; if the mind is obscured by prejudice, one cannot extract correct patterns from one's observations.

Therefore, the ancient tradition of "observing phenomena" implicitly required xu, yi, and jing -- though the ancient ancestors may not have used this terminology, the substance was the same.

Section 4: The Ancient Tradition of "Prayer and Record" and the Cultivation of "Jing"

In ancient society, the zhu (prayer-offerer) and the shi (recorder) were extremely important cultural roles. They were responsible for presiding over sacrifices, recording celestial phenomena and state affairs, and transmitting the messages of the spirits and the teachings of the ancestors.

The Guoyu, "Chu Yu Xia," describes the qualities required of these prayer-offerers and recorders:

"Whose wisdom could align with propriety above and below, whose sagacity could illumine far and near, whose clarity could shed light upon all, whose acuity could hear through all."

Prayer-offerers and recorders needed to possess extremely high cognitive capacities -- wisdom (zhi), sagacity (sheng), clarity (ming), and acuity (cong) -- to fulfill the weighty task of communicating with heaven, earth, and the spirits.

The cultivation of these capacities required long training. Among the most important forms of training was jing -- in a quiet environment, through purification and meditation, refining one's spiritual perceptive power.

The training methods of the ancient prayer-offerers and recorders may be regarded as the cultural predecessor of the later pre-Qin philosophers' cultivation of jing. From the religious cultivation of the prayer-offerer to the rationalized self-cultivation of the philosopher, the core -- enhancing spiritual perceptive power through jing -- is of the same lineage.

Section 5: "Knowing" and "Foolishness" in the Myths of High Antiquity

Among the myths and legends of high antiquity, there are many stories about "knowing" and "foolishness" that embody the ancient ancestors' simple reflections on the problem of cognition.

The story of Gun and Yu controlling the floods:

Gun attempted to control the floods by damming them, and he failed. Yu changed to the method of channeling the waters, and he succeeded.

This story may be read from a cognitive perspective: Gun failed because he was "obscured" by his existing method (damming) and could not see another possibility (channeling). This is "letting what has been stored impede what is yet to be received" -- existing knowledge obstructing the reception of new understanding.

Yu succeeded because he was able to break through the established pattern of thinking, approaching the nature of water with an open mind, and thereby found a method of management that accorded with water's nature. This is xu -- not letting existing knowledge limit the exploration of new possibilities.

The story of Houyi shooting the suns:

As discussed earlier, the key to Houyi's shooting down the suns was yi -- each shot required total concentration on a single target. This story vividly illustrates the importance of yi in a concrete skill.

The story of the Yellow Emperor battling Chiyou:

The Shanhaijing, "Da Huang Bei Jing," records:

"Chiyou raised an army to attack the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor commanded Yinglong to attack at the fields of Jizhou. Yinglong stored up water. Chiyou called upon the Earl of Wind and the Master of Rain, who unleashed great wind and rain. The Yellow Emperor then sent down the celestial maiden Ba. The rain ceased, and thereupon Chiyou was slain."

In this story, Chiyou employed the Earl of Wind and the Master of Rain to create great storms to disrupt the battlefield -- this is the creation of bi (adverse external conditions obscuring visibility and impairing the capacity to act). The Yellow Emperor then summoned the celestial maiden Ba to stop the rain -- this is "dispelling bi" (removing the disruptive factors, restoring conditions of clarity for cognition and action).

From a cognitive perspective, this myth allegorically conveys a profound truth: on the battlefield of cognition, the creation of bi and the dispelling of bi are an eternal contest. Those who can dispel bi and maintain clarity will ultimately prevail.

Section 6: The Image of "Clarity and Luminosity" in Ancient Folk Tradition

"Clarity and luminosity" (qingming) in the culture of high antiquity was not only a philosophical concept but also a description of natural phenomena and a marker of the seasonal calendar.

When spring arrives, the weather turns from overcast and cold to bright and fair, and the land turns from dim to brilliant -- this is nature's "clarity and luminosity." The ancient ancestors observed that during the Clear and Bright season (Qingming), the sky is especially transparent, the land especially vivid, and all things especially full of vitality -- the best time of the year for the conditions of cognition.

This experience of nature's "clarity and luminosity" was gradually transformed into a spiritual metaphor: the mind's "clarity and luminosity" is like heaven and earth during the Clear and Bright season -- transparent, radiant, and full of vitality.

The Shijing, "Da Ya," "Da Ming," says:

"This was King Wen: attentive and circumspect. Brilliantly he served the Lord on High, and thereby received many blessings. His virtue did not falter, and so he received the allegiance of many states."

King Wen was "attentive and circumspect" (xiao xin yi yi) -- careful and clear-minded. The character zhao (brilliantly) itself carries the meaning of ming -- radiance, luminosity. King Wen served the Lord on High with a clear mind, and thereby received blessings in abundance.

The "attentiveness and circumspection" and "brilliance" here are in spiritual sympathy with "xu, yi, and jing" -- caution (jing), concentration (yi), and radiance (qingming).

Section 7: The Story of Qi and the Ancient Hermit Tradition

Master Xun told the story of a person named Qi:

"Within the hollow rock there lives a man whose name is Qi. He is by nature skilled at archery and fond of thinking. When the desires of the ears and eyes make contact with him, they ruin his thought; when the buzzing of gnats and gadflies reaches his ears, it breaks his concentration. Therefore he shuts out the desires of the ears and eyes, removes himself from the buzzing of gnats and gadflies, and in quiet seclusion thinks -- and then he achieves understanding."

"Within the hollow rock" -- in a spacious stone cavern. This man, named Qi, was skilled at archery and fond of deep thought. But his mind was so sensitive that even the slightest sensory disturbance would ruin his thinking. So he had to shut out all external interference and think only in stillness to achieve understanding.

This story is reminiscent of the hermit tradition of high antiquity. In ancient legend, many sages chose to withdraw from the world and live in seclusion in the mountains and forests, seeking spiritual purity and insight. Their seclusion was not passive escapism but active cultivation -- through the exclusion of external interference, they attained the mind's clarity and penetrating insight.

However, Master Xun's evaluation of Qi was not the highest. He continued:

"If the pursuit of humaneness is like this, can it be called subtle (wei)$3"

If the pursuit of the way of humaneness requires methods like Qi's, can it be called truly "subtle" (refined, profound)$4

Master Xun's answer was no. He considered Qi's method -- shutting out all external interference -- effective but not yet the highest art. For the true "consummate person" (zhi ren) need not shut out the external world to maintain the mind's clarity:

"The subtle one is the consummate person. The consummate person -- why does he need to coerce himself$5 Why does he need to endure$6 Why does he need to fear$7 Therefore, turbid light illumines only external shadows; clear light illumines inner reality. The sage gives free rein to his desires, embraces all his feelings, yet what governs them is principle (li)."

The consummate person does not need to coerce, endure, or fear. "Turbid light illumines only external shadows; clear light illumines inner reality" -- murky illumination shows only external appearances, while clear illumination reveals inner essences. The sage gives free rein to desires, embraces all feelings, yet governs them with principle.

This passage is profoundly significant: the highest form of jing is not the exclusion of all external interference (which is merely a preliminary discipline) but the maintenance of inner clarity amid all external interference. The sage need not flee from desires and emotions but can maintain the governance of li within the natural flow of desires and emotions -- this is the supreme form of jing.

Section 8: The Distinction Between the Humane Person and the Sage

In this section, Master Xun also drew a distinction between the humane person (ren zhe) and the sage (sheng ren):

"Therefore the humane person practices the Way through non-action (wu wei); the sage practices the Way without compulsion (wu qiang). The humane person's thinking is reverent (gong); the sage's thinking is joyful (le). This is the way of governing the mind."

The humane person practices the Way through "non-action" -- naturally and effortlessly following the Way, without needing to force himself. The sage practices the Way "without compulsion" -- without any strain whatsoever; the practice of the Way is for him entirely free and at ease.

The humane person's thinking is "reverent" -- serious and careful. The sage's thinking is "joyful" -- happy and at ease.

The humane person has already attained a very high level -- he can practice the Way naturally, without external constraint. Yet his mental state is still "reverent" -- bearing a certain gravity and caution, indicating that he still, to some degree, needs "effort" to maintain this state.

The sage transcends the humane person -- he not only practices the Way naturally but does so with "joy." The practice of the Way is for him not a duty but a delight. He is entirely free of compulsion and tension; everything is natural, effortless, and at ease.

This resonates deeply with the life-stages described by the Master:

"At fifteen, I set my mind on learning; at thirty, I stood firm; at forty, I was no longer confused; at fifty, I knew the mandate of Heaven; at sixty, my ear was attuned; at seventy, I could follow what my heart desired without overstepping the bounds." (Lunyu, "Wei Zheng")

"Following what my heart desired without overstepping the bounds" -- acting spontaneously yet never transgressing propriety. This is precisely Master Xun's portrait of the sage who "gives free rein to his desires, embraces all his feelings, yet what governs them is principle" -- desires and feelings flow freely, but li always plays the guiding role, ensuring that all activity stays on the proper path.