Part Two: The Theory of Dao -- Guiguzi's Dao Compared with Pre-Qin Theories of Dao

Chapter 1: Guiguzi's "Dao" and the Laozi's "Dao"

"Enriching the Spirit by Emulating the Five Dragons" says of the Dao: "The Dao is the beginning of Heaven and Earth; the One is its guiding thread. It is that from which things are fashioned, that by which Heaven is born. It encompasses all and is without form; its transformation into Qi preceded even Heaven and Earth. None can see its form, none can know its name -- it is called the Divine Numinous."

This passage on the Dao has extremely deep affinities with the Laozi's theory of Dao, yet also subtle differences. We must carefully distinguish them.

1. "The Beginning of Heaven and Earth": Dao Precedes Heaven and Earth

The Laozi, Chapter 1: "The nameless is the beginning of Heaven and Earth; the named is the mother of the myriad things." Chapter 25: "There was something undifferentiated yet complete, born before Heaven and Earth." Guiguzi's statement "the Dao is the beginning of Heaven and Earth" derives directly from this.

Yet the Laozi speaks of the Dao as "born before Heaven and Earth," emphasizing the word "before" -- temporal priority. Guiguzi speaks of the Dao as "the beginning of Heaven and Earth," emphasizing "beginning" (shi) -- the Dao as origin and source. Though the two are close, their emphases differ. The Laozi's Dao transcends Heaven and Earth; Guiguzi's Dao is the generative source of Heaven and Earth.

Why this difference$11 Because the Laozi focuses on the Dao's transcendence and ineffability, hence "born before Heaven and Earth" highlights the Dao's independence. Guiguzi focuses on the Dao's generative function, hence "the beginning of Heaven and Earth" highlights the Dao's creative power. This is not a contradiction but a difference of perspective.

2. "The One Is Its Guiding Thread": The Relationship Between Dao and the One

The Laozi discusses "the One" in Chapter 42: "The Dao gives birth to the One; the One gives birth to Two; Two gives birth to Three; Three gives birth to the myriad things." Here the relationship between Dao and the One is that of generator and generated; the One issues from the Dao, Two from the One, Three from Two.

Guiguzi says "the One is its guiding thread" (yi qi ji ye), meaning the Dao takes the One as its governing principle. "Ji" means the initial thread of silk. The Shuowen: "Ji means the separation of silk threads." By extension: governing principle, order. The Dao takes the One as the governing principle of its unfolding and operation.

This differs slightly from the Laozi. The Laozi's "One" is the first thing the Dao generates; Guiguzi's "One" is the Dao's own operational principle. Yet the two can be harmonized: the Dao gives birth to the One, and the One is the Dao's initial unfolding, its most fundamental principle. Before the Dao's essence manifests, it is an undifferentiated whole; when it begins to move, it first appears as "the One." This "One" is both what the Dao generates and the Dao's own principle.

The Guanzi's "Inner Training" says: "To be able to transform a single thing -- that is called divine. To be able to vary a single affair -- that is called wise." Also: "Hold fast to the One and never lose it, and you can be sovereign over the myriad things." This thought of "holding fast to the One" was widely current in Pre-Qin times, not unique to the Laozi. Guiguzi's teaching that "the One is its guiding thread" likely has a deeper and broader scholarly background.

3. "Encompasses All and Is Without Form": The Formlessness of Dao

The Laozi speaks in many places of the Dao's formlessness: "Look at it and you cannot see it... Listen to it and you cannot hear it... Grasp at it and you cannot get it" (Chapter 14). "The great image has no form" (Chapter 41).

Guiguzi's four characters "bao hong wu xing" (encompasses all and is without form) express both the vastness of the Dao (encompassing) and its formlessness. These four characters carry a dual meaning: the Dao is vast and formless, and the Dao encompasses everything that is formless.

Why must the Dao be without form$12 The Laozi, Chapter 21: "The Dao as a thing -- how shadowy, how indistinct! Indistinct and shadowy, yet within it there is image. Shadowy and indistinct, yet within it there is substance. Dim and dark, yet within it there is vital essence; this essence is utterly genuine, and within it there is trustworthiness." The Dao, though formless, contains image, substance, essence, and trustworthiness. Without form yet possessing reality -- such is the marvel of the Dao.

Guiguzi's treatment of the Dao's formlessness shares the same intent as the Laozi's. Yet Guiguzi places greater emphasis on "encompassing" -- the Dao is not merely formless in itself but is able to encompass all things. The word "encompass" (bao) highlights the Dao's capacity for containment. All things formed and formless are within the Dao; the Dao is within all things, yet transcends all things.

4. "Its Transformation into Qi Preceded Even Heaven and Earth": The Cosmogony of Qi Transformation

This sentence is the most original element in Guiguzi's theory of Dao.

"Transformation into Qi" (hua qi) -- the Dao transforms into Qi. "Preceded even Heaven and Earth in its completion" -- this process of Qi transformation preceded the formation of Heaven and Earth.

This touches upon the core question of Pre-Qin cosmogony: where do Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things come from$13

The Laozi's answer: "The Dao gives birth to the One; the One gives birth to Two; Two gives birth to Three; Three gives birth to the myriad things." This is the sequence Dao -> One -> Two -> Three -> myriad things.

Guiguzi's answer: Dao -> Qi -> Heaven and Earth -> myriad things. This sequence is more concrete, introducing "Qi" as an intermediate link.

"Qi" occupies an extremely important position in Pre-Qin thought. Consider the following:

The Guanzi's "Inner Training": "The essential substance of all things -- this is what produces life. Below, it gives birth to the five grains; above, it becomes the arrayed stars. When it flows between Heaven and Earth, it is called ghosts and spirits; when stored within the breast, it is called the Sage. Therefore this Qi: bright as if ascending to Heaven, dark as if entering the abyss, vast as if dwelling in the sea, close as if present in oneself."

Here it is made explicit that the birth of all things derives from vital Qi. Vital Qi flowing between Heaven and Earth is ghosts and spirits; stored within the breast, it makes one a Sage. The importance of Qi is evident.

The Zhuangzi, "Knowledge Wandered North" (Zhi Bei You): "A person's life is the gathering of Qi. When it gathers, there is life; when it scatters, there is death. ... Therefore it is said: throughout the world there is just one Qi."

Master Zhuang goes further, using Qi to unify life and death and to pervade the entire world. All things in the world are simply the gathering and scattering of Qi.

Guiguzi's statement that "its transformation into Qi preceded even Heaven and Earth" is consonant with the Qi theories of both the Guanzi and the Zhuangzi. Yet Guiguzi states more explicitly: the Dao first transforms into Qi, then Qi transforms into Heaven and Earth. This is a three-stage cosmogony -- Dao -> Qi -> Heaven and Earth -- more concrete than the Laozi's "The Dao gives birth to the One."

Why more concrete$14 Because the Laozi's "One" is quite abstract, with divergent interpretations among later scholars. By using "Qi" in place of "One" (or interpreting "One" as "Qi"), Guiguzi achieves greater clarity. Qi is perceptible yet invisible, possessing substance yet lacking form -- exactly the intermediate between the Dao (purely formless) and Heaven and Earth (possessing both form and substance), making it the ideal transitional concept.

5. "It Is Called the Divine Numinous": An Alternate Name for the Dao

The Dao's form "cannot be seen" and its name "cannot be known," hence it is called "the Divine Numinous" (shenling).

Here "Divine Numinous" is an alternate name for the Dao, not a reference to ghosts and gods. But why call the Dao "Divine Numinous"$15

The Zhouyi's Xici Zhuan: "What is unfathomable in the alternation of Yin and Yang is called the Divine." The original meaning of "shen" (divine) is the unfathomable, the unknowable force. Since the Dao's form "cannot be seen" and its name "cannot be known," it is precisely this unfathomable, unknowable -- hence "Divine Numinous."

But why "Divine Numinous" rather than simply "Divine"$16 What deeper meaning does the additional character "ling" (numinous) carry$17

"Ling" in the Shuowen: "Ling means a shamaness -- one who serves the spirits with jade." By extension: marvelous, efficacious, responsive. "Divine Numinous" together conveys not only the unfathomable (shen) but also the marvelously responsive (ling). The Dao not only transcends all things (divine) but can also marvelously generate and respond to all things (numinous).

These two characters, "Divine Numinous," already lay the groundwork for the "spirit" of "enriching the spirit" below. The human spirit is the manifestation of the Dao's divine numinosity within the person. To enrich one's spirit is to restore and fill to abundance the divine numinosity of the Dao within oneself.

6. "Therefore the Dao Is the Source of Divine Illumination, and the One Is the Starting Point of Its Transformations": Dao as Source

"The Dao is the source of divine illumination" -- the Dao is the wellspring of divine illumination (shenming). "The One is the starting point of its transformations" -- the Dao takes the One as the inception of its creative transformations.

These two sentences summarize the theory of Dao. The Dao is the source; the One is the starting point. A source is where water flows from; a starting point is where a thread is drawn from. The Dao is like a spring from which divine illumination flows; the One is like the thread's end from which the myriad transformations are drawn.

"Divine illumination" (shenming) appears frequently in Pre-Qin texts. The Guanzi's "Inner Training" offers an extended discussion of the relationship between vital essence and divine illumination, which resonates across the ages with Guiguzi's statement that "the Dao is the source of divine illumination."

Chapter 2: Guiguzi's "Dao" and the Dao of the Zhouyi

1. The Dao of the Zhouyi

The Xici Zhuan says: "One Yin and one Yang -- this is called the Dao." Also: "What is above form is called the Dao; what is below form is called the vessel."

The Dao of the Zhouyi takes Yin and Yang as its content. The Dao is inseparable from Yin and Yang; Yin and Yang are the unfolding of the Dao. "One Yin and one Yang" means not pure Yin or pure Yang, but the alternation, waxing, and waning of Yin and Yang.

What are the similarities and differences between Guiguzi's Dao and the Dao of the Zhouyi$18

2. Similarity: Dao as Source

Both the Zhouyi and Guiguzi take the Dao as the source of all things. The Xici Zhuan: "The Yi (Change) possesses the Grand Ultimate (Taiji), which gives birth to the Two Standards, which give birth to the Four Images, which give birth to the Eight Trigrams." The generative sequence Grand Ultimate -> Two Standards -> Four Images -> Eight Trigrams is structurally similar to Guiguzi's Dao -> Qi -> Heaven and Earth -> myriad things.

The "Grand Ultimate" of the Xici Zhuan is in effect another name for the Dao. Before the Grand Ultimate divides, it is an undifferentiated whole -- this is what Guiguzi calls "the One is its guiding thread." When the Grand Ultimate divides into the Two Standards (Yin and Yang), this corresponds to Guiguzi's "transformation into Qi." When the Two Standards give birth to the Four Images and the Four Images to the Eight Trigrams, this corresponds to the creative transformation of Heaven, Earth, and all things.

3. Difference: Different Emphases

The Dao of the Zhouyi emphasizes "change." "When exhausted, it changes; when changed, it penetrates; when penetrating, it endures" (Xici Zhuan, Part 2). The Zhouyi, through its sixty-four hexagrams and three hundred eighty-four lines, displays the way of change; its core concern is how to respond to change.

Guiguzi's Dao emphasizes "nourishment." "The place where the spirit is nourished returns to the Dao." Guiguzi's concern is how to nourish the spirit through the Dao, and through spirit to master change.

The Zhouyi emphasizes change; Guiguzi emphasizes nourishment. Change is external, dynamic; nourishment is internal, still. Yet the two are complementary: without knowing change one cannot nourish; without being able to nourish one cannot respond to change.

The Xici Zhuan says: "The Yi is that by which the Sage exalts virtue and broadens his undertakings. Knowledge exalts and ceremony abases; exaltation models Heaven, abasement models Earth." The Sage's exaltation of virtue and broadening of undertakings is itself a form of "nourishment" -- nourishing virtue to exalt it. Guiguzi's nourishing of spirit and the Zhouyi's exaltation of virtue reach the same destination by different paths.

4. "Enriching the Spirit" and "Fathoming the Divine to Know Transformation"

The Xici Zhuan, Part 2, says: "To fathom the divine and know transformation -- this is the fullness of virtue."

These four characters, "fathom the divine, know transformation" (qiong shen zhi hua), are extremely close to Guiguzi's terms "enriching the spirit" (sheng shen) and "divine transformation" (shenhua).

"Fathom the divine" means to exhaust the principles of the divine. "Know transformation" means to comprehend the way of change. "The fullness of virtue" -- virtue attains its fullness here.

Guiguzi's "enriching the spirit" means filling the human spirit to abundance. "Divine transformation" means the spirit's change reaching the realm of transformation. By comparison:

• The Zhouyi: fathom the divine (exhaust divine principles) -> know transformation (comprehend change) -> fullness of virtue
• Guiguzi: enrich the spirit (fill spirit to abundance) -> divine transformation (spirit reaches the realm of transformation) -> True Person (one united with the Dao)

The two paths are similar: first apply effort to the divine, then reach transformation, and finally achieve virtue (or become a True Person).

Yet their directions differ: the Zhouyi moves from fathoming the divine to knowing transformation to fullness of virtue -- outward, toward cognition of change. Guiguzi moves from enriching the spirit to divine transformation to returning to the body -- inward, toward self-cultivation.

This difference of "outward" versus "inward" reflects the different scholarly concerns of the Zhouyi and Guiguzi. The Zhouyi is a book of divination, its core concern being cognition of Heaven and Earth's changes so as to seek the auspicious and avoid the inauspicious. Guiguzi's is a book of the Vertical and Horizontal, its core concern being cultivation of one's own spirit so as to respond to the changes of human affairs.

5. The Dragon Image and the Qian Hexagram

The "dragon" in "Enriching the Spirit by Emulating the Five Dragons" cannot be discussed without reference to the dragon imagery of the Zhouyi's Qian (Heaven) hexagram.

The six lines of Qian:

• Initial Nine: The hidden dragon. Do not act.
• Nine in the Second Place: The dragon appears in the field. It is beneficial to see the great person.
• Nine in the Third Place: The noble person is diligent all day long, watchful in the evening. Though in danger, no blame.
• Nine in the Fourth Place: Leaping from the abyss at will. No blame.
• Nine in the Fifth Place: The flying dragon is in the heavens. It is beneficial to see the great person.
• Top Nine: The overreaching dragon will have regret.

And the Use of All Nines: "When a host of dragons appears without a leader -- auspicious."

The Qian hexagram uses the dragon to illustrate the rise and fall of Yang Qi. The dragon's hiding, appearing, wariness, leaping, flying, and overreaching display the full process of Yang Qi from concealment to flight to excess.

Guiguzi's "Five Dragons" may have a connection with the Qian hexagram's dragon imagery. Yet Guiguzi says "Five," while the Qian hexagram's dragon has six stages (seven if the Use of All Nines is included) -- the numbers do not match.

If the Five Dragons take the middle five lines of Qian (removing either the hidden dragon of the Initial Nine or the overreaching dragon of the Top Nine), then the Five Dragons would be: appearing, wary, leaping, flying, and (overreaching or hidden). Or one might remove the overreaching dragon (since overreaching brings regret, it is not worth emulating) and take the five states of hidden, appearing, wary, leaping, and flying.

This is one conjecture. If the Five Dragons emulate the five states of concealment, manifestation, watchfulness, advance, and soaring, then the way of enriching spirit likewise requires knowing the timing of concealment, manifestation, vigilance, advance, and soaring.

Yet this conjecture, while possessing a certain logic, lacks definitive textual support. We should reserve judgment here and not force a conclusion.

The deeper connection lies in this: the Qian hexagram uses the dragon to illustrate the changes of the Heavenly Dao; Guiguzi uses the Five Dragons to illustrate the principles of enriching spirit. The dragon is a creature of transformation; spirit is the root of transformation. To model the root of transformation upon a creature of transformation -- how fitting.

Chapter 3: Guiguzi's "Dao" and the Guanzi's "Dao"

1. The Guanzi's Theory of Dao

The Guanzi contains many chapters discussing the Dao. The most important are "Art of the Mind, Part 1" (Xinshu Shang), "Art of the Mind, Part 2" (Xinshu Xia), "The White Mind" (Baixin), and "Inner Training" (Neiye). These four chapters are known as the "Four Chapters of the Guanzi," and their philosophical depth is no less than that of the Laozi.

"Art of the Mind, Part 1": "The Dao is in the space between Heaven and Earth -- so great that nothing is outside it, so small that nothing is inside it. Therefore it is said: not far away, yet hard to reach its limit."

Also: "Void and formless -- this is called the Dao. To nurture and transform all things -- this is called Virtue. The affairs of ruler and minister, father and child -- this is called Righteousness."

"Inner Training": "The Dao has no fixed location; in a good mind it rests in peace. When the mind is still and Qi is ordered, the Dao can abide."

2. Comparison of the Dao Theories of Guiguzi and the Guanzi

(1) The Formlessness of Dao

The Guanzi: "Void and formless -- this is called the Dao." The Dao is empty and formless. Guiguzi: "Encompasses all and is without form." The Dao is vast and formless.

Both speak of the Dao's formlessness, but with different phrasing. The Guanzi characterizes the Dao as "void and empty"; Guiguzi characterizes it as "encompassing and vast." "Void and empty" emphasizes the Dao's emptiness and nothingness; "encompassing and vast" emphasizes its expansiveness and capacity for containment.

This difference reflects their different concerns. The Guanzi focuses on governing the state, and the Dao's void emptiness suits the ruler's governance through quiet non-action. Guiguzi focuses on the Vertical and Horizontal, and the Dao's encompassing vastness suits the strategist's capacity to contain all things and respond to change.

(2) Dao and the Mind

The Guanzi: "The Dao has no fixed location; in a good mind it rests in peace. When the mind is still and Qi is ordered, the Dao can abide." The Dao can abide in the mind, provided the mind is still and Qi is ordered.

Guiguzi: "The mind is their dwelling" -- the mind is the residence of spirit. "When the mind can attain the One, then there is Method." When the mind can hold fast to the One, Method arises naturally.

Both take the mind as the key. The Guanzi says "when the mind is still and Qi is ordered, the Dao can abide"; Guiguzi says "when the mind can attain the One, then there is Method." The Guanzi's "still mind" and Guiguzi's "mind attaining the One" are both states of the mind's cultivation. When the mind is cultivated properly, the Dao can take up residence (Guanzi) and Method can arise (Guiguzi).

(3) Dao and Qi

The Guanzi's discussion of Qi is extremely deep. "Inner Training": "The essential substance of all things -- this is what produces life... Therefore this Qi cannot be halted by force, but can be pacified by Virtue; cannot be summoned by voice, but can be welcomed by intention. Guard it respectfully and never lose it -- this is called the achievement of Virtue. When Virtue is achieved, wisdom emerges, and all things are completely obtained."

Guiguzi on Qi: "Within the enriched spirit there are Five Qi," "its transformation into Qi preceded even Heaven and Earth," "through Virtue the Five Qi are nourished," "the Five Qi receive nourishment," "stillness and harmony nourish Qi; nourishing Qi attains harmony."

Both take Qi as a core concept. The Guanzi's Qi emphasizes "vital essence" -- the most refined aspect of Qi. Guiguzi's Qi emphasizes "the Five Qi" -- five functional differentiations of Qi. The Guanzi says of nourishing Qi that "guarding respectfully and never losing" is essential; Guiguzi says "stillness and harmony" are essential.

What is the difference between "guarding respectfully" and "stillness and harmony"$19 "Guarding respectfully" implies an active maintenance requiring constant vigilance. "Stillness and harmony" emphasizes relaxation and gentle calm. This difference may reflect different cultivation paths: the Guanzi favors reverence (jing); Guiguzi favors stillness (jing, a different character).

(4) Dao and Virtue

The Guanzi: "To nurture and transform all things -- this is called Virtue." Virtue is the Dao's function of nurturing and transforming.

Guiguzi: "Virtue is what makes them great"; "through Virtue the Five Qi are nourished." Virtue is what is obtained from the Dao, the basis for nourishing Qi.

The Guanzi takes Virtue as the Dao's function of nurturing and transforming (the natural plane); Guiguzi takes Virtue as the basis for nourishing Qi (the cultivation plane). Yet the two connect: the Dao's nurturing and transforming of all things (the Guanzi's Virtue), when applied to the person, becomes the nurturing of the Five Qi (Guiguzi's Virtue).

(5) Summary: The Scholarly Kinship of the Guanzi and Guiguzi

From these comparisons it is evident that Guiguzi and the Guanzi share a very deep scholarly kinship in their theories of Dao. Both discuss the Dao's formlessness, the centrality of the mind, the nurturing of Qi, and the function of Virtue, while each has its own emphasis. The Guanzi leans toward statecraft; Guiguzi leans toward the Vertical and Horizontal. Yet their fundamental theories of Dao issue from the same scholarly tradition.

What tradition is this$20 It may well be the Daoist tradition of the Jixia Academy. Both the Guanzi school and the Guiguzi school may have originated in the scholarly environment of the state of Qi during the Warring States period. The Jixia Academy gathered the Hundred Schools, and Daoist and Huang-Lao learning flourished there in particular. The Dao theories of both the Four Chapters of the Guanzi and the Guiguzi may have been shaped by this scholarly milieu.

Chapter 4: Guiguzi's "Dao" and the Zhuangzi's "Dao"

1. The Zhuangzi's Theory of Dao

Master Zhuang's discussions of Dao are scattered throughout his work, with the most essential passages found in "Discussion on Making All Things Equal" (Qi Wu Lun), "The Great Ancestral Teacher" (Da Zong Shi), and "Knowledge Wandered North" (Zhi Bei You).

"The Great Ancestral Teacher": "As for the Dao -- it has reality and trustworthiness, yet does nothing and has no form. It can be transmitted but not received, can be attained but not seen. It is its own root and its own source. Before there was Heaven and Earth, from antiquity it has firmly existed. It renders divine the ghosts and the Lord on High; it gives birth to Heaven and to Earth. It is above the Grand Ultimate yet is not considered lofty; it is below the six directions yet is not considered deep. It was born before Heaven and Earth yet is not considered long-lived; it is older than high antiquity yet is not considered old."

This passage, in which Master Zhuang discusses the essential characteristics of the Dao, can be compared precisely with Guiguzi's theory of Dao.

2. "Has Reality and Trustworthiness" vs. "Its Transformation into Qi Preceded Heaven and Earth"

Master Zhuang says the Dao "has reality and trustworthiness" (you qing you xin), meaning that though formless, it is genuine -- it has its inherent nature (qing) and its dependable reality (xin). This accords with the Laozi, Chapter 21: "Its essence is utterly genuine; within it there is trustworthiness."

Guiguzi's statement that the Dao's "transformation into Qi preceded even Heaven and Earth" goes further, specifying that the Dao's "reality and trustworthiness" is concretely manifested as "transformation into Qi" -- the Dao becoming Qi. Qi is the concrete manifestation of the Dao's reality and trustworthiness.

From this we can see that Guiguzi's theory of Qi transformation is in fact a concretization and clarification of the Dao theories of the Laozi and the Zhuangzi. The Laozi and the Zhuangzi say the Dao "has reality and trustworthiness" without specifying its substance; Guiguzi identifies it explicitly as "Qi."

3. "It Renders Divine the Ghosts... It Gives Birth to Heaven and Earth" vs. "That by Which Heaven Is Born"

Master Zhuang says the Dao "renders divine the ghosts and the Lord on High, gives birth to Heaven and to Earth" -- the Dao makes ghosts divine and the Lord supreme, and generates Heaven and Earth. Here "divine" (shen) is used as a verb: to make divine.

Guiguzi says the Dao is "that by which Heaven is born" -- Heaven is born of the Dao. This matches Master Zhuang's "gives birth to Heaven and Earth."

Yet Guiguzi also says the Dao is "that from which things are fashioned" -- things too are fashioned by the Dao. "Fashioned" (zao) carries a stronger sense of creation than "born" (sheng). The Shuowen: "Zao means to accomplish." By extension: to create, to bring into being. The Dao creates the myriad things -- this is more active and deliberate than Master Zhuang's "giving birth."

4. Comparison of the "True Person"

Master Zhuang's True Person, as described in "The Great Ancestral Teacher":

"The True People of antiquity did not resist the few, did not vaunt their achievements, did not scheme. Being such, they could pass through error without regret and encounter success without self-satisfaction. They could climb heights without trembling, enter water without getting wet, enter fire without feeling heat."

"The True People of antiquity slept without dreaming, woke without care, ate without savoring, breathed deeply. The True Person breathes from the heels; ordinary people breathe from the throat."

"The True People of antiquity did not delight in life, did not dread death. Their coming forth brought no elation, their going in no resistance. Freely they went, freely they came -- that was all. They did not forget where they began, nor did they seek where they would end."

The True Person of Master Zhuang is characterized by: freedom from greed and fear, dreamless sleep and carefree waking, deep breathing from the heels, equanimity toward both life and death, coming and going freely. The core is unity with the Dao, not interfering with the natural course of Heaven through human contrivance.

Guiguzi's True Person: "One who receives life from Heaven is called a True Person. The True Person is one with Heaven." "The True Person is one who is the same as Heaven and united with the Dao, who holds fast to the One and nourishes the myriad kinds, who harbors the Heart of Heaven and bestows the nourishment of Virtue, who through non-action encompasses will, deliberation, thought, and intention while exercising imposing power."

The characteristics of Guiguzi's True Person are: unity with Heaven, union with the Dao, holding the One to nourish all things, harboring the Heart of Heaven, bestowing Virtue's nourishment, and wielding imposing power through non-action.

The contrast is clear:

Master Zhuang's True Person emphasizes naturalness. No interference, no contrivance, coming and going freely, sharing in the naturalness of Heaven and Earth.

Guiguzi's True Person emphasizes capability. Holding the One to nourish all things, bestowing Virtue's nourishment, wielding imposing power. Guiguzi's True Person not only unites with the Dao but actively nourishes all things and wields power.

Why this difference$1 Because Master Zhuang's learning aims at carefree wandering and the equalization of things; the True Person's highest state is liberation from all human constraints, merging with Heaven and Earth. Guiguzi's learning aims at Vertical and Horizontal engagement with the world; the True Person's highest state is governing the world through the Dao, wielding action through non-action.

Master Zhuang's True Person resembles the ultimate recluse; Guiguzi's True Person resembles the ultimate strategist. Yet the foundation of both is the same -- both take "being one with Heaven" and "uniting with the Dao" as their premise.

Here lies a profound insight: the state of the True Person can be realized in seclusion (Master Zhuang) or in active engagement (Guiguzi). Seclusion does not hinder union with the Dao; engagement does not hinder union with the Dao. A person who is united with the Dao, whether in seclusion or in public life, is a True Person.

5. Comparison of "Transformation" (Hua)

Master Zhuang's most famous treatment of "transformation" is the butterfly dream in "Discussion on Making All Things Equal":

"Once Zhuang Zhou dreamed he was a butterfly -- a flutter-by, a butterfly content with himself, happily doing as he pleased, not knowing he was Zhou. Suddenly he awoke, and there he was -- palpably Zhou. He did not know whether he was Zhou dreaming he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhou. Between Zhou and a butterfly, there must be some distinction. This is called the Transformation of Things (wuhua)."

"Transformation of Things" -- the transformation of all things. Though Zhuang Zhou and the butterfly are distinct in physical form, at the level of "transformation" they are interpenetrating and indistinguishable.

In "The Great Ancestral Teacher": "Suppose bit by bit the Creator transforms my left arm into a rooster -- I will thereupon seek the hours of the night. Suppose bit by bit it transforms my right arm into a crossbow pellet -- I will thereupon seek roast owl. Suppose it transforms my buttocks into cart wheels and my spirit into a horse -- I will thereupon ride them. What need for any other vehicle$2" This extreme imaginative exercise expresses serene acceptance of "transformation."

Guiguzi's "transformation": "This is called Transformation. Transformation involves the Five Qi: Will, Thought, Spirit, Virtue." "To preserve and lodge them -- this is called Divine Transformation."

Master Zhuang's transformation emphasizes "the Transformation of Things" -- the flowing change of all things, to which one should not cling. Guiguzi's transformation emphasizes "Divine Transformation" -- the transformative elevation of spirit through active cultivation.

Master Zhuang's transformation follows nature without interference; Guiguzi's transformation involves active cultivation and purposeful elevation.

Yet both forms of "transformation" share the premise of "non-attachment." Master Zhuang does not cling to changes of physical form; Guiguzi likewise does not cling to any fixed form of Method -- "Divine Transformation" means that spirit can transform endlessly, without restriction to any single pattern.