Part One: The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits—The Manifestation of the Dao-Substance within the Subtle

Chapter 1: Etymological Investigation of the Terms "Ghosts and Spirits"

Section 1: The Ancient Semantics of "Gui" and "Shen"

To understand the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" (Gui Shen Zhi De), one must first clarify the meaning of Gui Shen. In pre-Qin texts, the meanings of Gui (ghost) and Shen (spirit) are extremely broad and their usage complex. Without careful differentiation, later vulgar interpretations may intrude, causing us to miss the original intention of the pre-Qin thinkers.

The character Gui (鬼) already appears in oracle bone inscriptions. Although the Shuowen Jiezi is a later compilation, Xu Shen often relied on ancient pre-Qin traditions. It states: "Gui is where human spirits return to." This definition of "return" (gui) carries profound implications. The Book of Rites: Meaning of Sacrifices (Liji: Jiyi) states: "All living things must die; when they die, they must return to the earth; this is what is called Gui." The Erya: Shi Xun also contains this meaning. The original meaning of Gui referred to the return place of the jing (essence/spirit) after death. Zichan's discussion on ghosts and spirits in the Zuo Zhuan: Zhao Gong Seventh Year is extremely concise:

"When a person begins to materialize, it is called Po (魄, the corporeal soul); after Po is generated, the Yang aspect is called Hun (魂, the spiritual soul). When one makes extensive use of essence (jing), the Hun and Po become strong. Thus, there is refined essence (Jing Shuang) that reaches the spiritual brightness (Shen Ming). When a common man or woman dies violently, their Hun and Po can still attach themselves to people, becoming perverse and fierce."

Zichan's discourse is one of the most important documents concerning the concept of Gui Shen in the Spring and Autumn period. By explaining Gui Shen through Hun and Po, and differentiating Po and Hun based on Yin-Yang, it is clear that in the Spring and Autumn period, the original meaning of Gui was related to the transformation of human essence (Jing). When a person dies, the Yin aspect sinks downward, called Gui; the Yang aspect rises upward, called Shen. This ebb and flow of Yin-Yang essence constitutes the basic meaning of Gui Shen.

The character Shen (神) is even more complex. Oracle bones show early forms of Di (God) and nascent forms of Shen. In high antiquity, Shen was broadly categorized into three types: celestial spirits (Tianshen), terrestrial deities (Di Shi), and human ghosts (Rengui). The Rites of Zhou: Spring Official: Grand Astrologer (Zhouli: Chunguan: Dazongbo) states:

"The duty of the Grand Astrologer is to manage the rites of the celestial spirits (Tianshen), human ghosts (Rengui), and terrestrial deities (Di Shi) of the state."

It further states:

"With the Solemn Sacrifice (Xian Si), one sacrifices to the August Heaven Above (Hao Tian Shang Di); with the Fire Offering (Shi Chai), one sacrifices to the Sun, Moon, and Stars; with the Firing Offering (Yuan Liao), one sacrifices to the Central Spirit (Si Zhong), the Spirit of Destiny (Si Ming), the Master of Wind (Feng Shi), and the Master of Rain (Yu Shi). With the Blood Sacrifice (Xie Ji), one sacrifices to the Altars of Soil and Grain (She Ji) and the Five Deities of the Crossroads (Wu Si), the Five Sacred Mountains (Wu Yue); with the Rinsing Sacrifice (Li Shen), one sacrifices to the spirits of mountains, forests, rivers, and lakes; with the Poignant Offering (Yan Gu), one sacrifices to the spirits of the Four Quarters and all creatures. With the Final Offering (Si Xian Lu), one presents libations to the former kings; with the Feeding Offering (Kui Shi), one offers food to the former kings; with the Spring Sacrifice (Ci Chun), one offers to the former kings."

These three categories have distinct rites: celestial spirits receive Xian Si, terrestrial deities receive blood sacrifices, and human ghosts receive the final offerings (Si Xian Lu and Kui Shi). Yet, they are all collectively named Gui Shen.

Returning to the Zhongyong's "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits," what exactly do these Gui Shen refer to$2 Are they the souls after death$3 The deities of Heaven and Earth$4 Or the coming and going of Yin-Yang essence$5 This is crucial for interpreting the chapter.

Section 2: Divergent Views on "Ghosts and Spirits" Among Pre-Qin Schools

The various pre-Qin schools held different primary views on Gui Shen.

Confucius's Stance:

"He who is devoted to the people's righteousness and respects ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance, one can call knowledgeable." (Analects, Yong Ye)

"The Master rarely spoke of strange occurrences, feats of strength, rebellion, or spiritual beings." (Analects, Shu Er)

When asked by Jilu about serving ghosts and spirits, the Master said: "If you are not yet able to serve men, how can you serve ghosts and spirits$6" Jilu asked about death. The Master replied: "If you do not yet understand life, how can you understand death$7" (Analects, Xian Jin)

"When attending a sacrifice, act as if the spirit is present; when sacrificing to spirits, act as if they are present. The Master said: 'If I do not participate in the sacrifice, it is as if I did not sacrifice.'" (Analects, Ba Yi)

From these passages, we see several characteristics of Confucius's view: First, he did not deny the existence of Gui Shen, but treated them with "respect" (Jing). Second, he rarely discussed their matters—what he "rarely spoke of" (Zi bu yu) was not a denial of their existence, but rather that their affairs were not the core of his moral instruction. Third, he emphasized the attitude of sincerity, "as if present" (Ji Ru Zai), making subjective sincerity the substance of sacrifice. Fourth, he connected spiritual matters with human affairs, never discussing them in isolation from human conduct.

This attitude forms the basis for the Zhongyong's chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." The Zhongyong does not debate their existence but reveals their function as "Virtue" (De). What is De$8 It means "gain" or "efficacy." "The virtue of ghosts and spirits" refers to the efficacy, the functional operation, or the moral meaning manifested by ghosts and spirits. This is a further development of Confucius's spirit of "as if present."

Mozi's Stance:

Mozi strongly advocated for "Clarity on Ghosts" (Ming Gui). In the Mozi: Clarity on Ghosts (Part 2):

"The sage kings of antiquity certainly relied on ghosts and spirits in their governance; their dedication to ghosts and spirits was profound. Fearing that later descendants might not understand, they inscribed it on bamboo and silk, passing it on to future generations. Fearing that it might rot away and be lost, they carved it on vessels and inscribed it on metal and stone to give it weight."

Mozi's argument centers on clarifying the "Will of Heaven" (Tian Zhi). Ghosts and spirits have the ability to reward the good and punish the tyrannical—this is the core of Mozi's "Clarity on Ghosts." He cited historical examples, such as Du Bo shooting King Xuan of Zhou, to prove that spirits could retaliate. This contrasts sharply with the aims of Confucian discussion on Gui Shen.

Laozi's Stance:

"When the Dao governs the world, its ghosts do not cause uncanny effects (Shen). It is not that their ghosts do not have spiritual power, but that their power does not harm people. It is not that their power does not harm people, but that the sage does not harm people either. Since neither harms the other, their virtues mutually converge." (Laozi, Chapter 60)

Laozi incorporates ghosts and spirits under the dominion of the Dao. When the world is governed by the Dao, ghosts and spirits remain in their proper places and do not interfere. The Shen in "do not cause uncanny effects" (Bu Shen) means miraculous or strange phenomena, not a denial of their existence; rather, it means that under the Dao's embrace, ghosts and spirits do not cause harm through monstrosity. This resonates subtly with the Zhongyong's discussion of Gui Shen in terms of De.

Zhuangzi's Stance:

Zhuangzi describes the realm of the "True Person" (Zhenren) by saying: "The True People of antiquity did not oppose scarcity, nor did they press for success, nor did they deliberate on strategy... When they slept, they did not dream; when they awoke, they had no worries." He also states: "Death and life are decreed; they are like the constant cycle of night and day—this is Heaven." Zhuangzi rarely discusses the existence of Gui Shen; instead, he sees life and death as the coalescence and dispersal of Qi (vital energy). Zhuangzi, Zhi Bei You states:

"Human life is the coalescence of Qi. When coalesced, it is life; when dispersed, it is death. If death and life are merely transformations, what is there to fear! Thus, the ten thousand things are one."

This theory of Qi coalescence and dispersal aligns with Zichan's theory of Hun and Po. The difference is that Zichan retained the specific terminology of Gui Shen, whereas Zhuangzi directly subsumed them under the unitary concept of Qi.

The Commentary on the I Ching (Yizhuan) Stance:

"Refined essence (Jing Qi) forms things; wandering spirit (You Hun) becomes change. Therefore, we know the dispositions of ghosts and spirits." (I Ching, Appendix III)

"That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit (Shen)." (I Ching, Appendix III)

These two lines are highly significant. "Refined essence forms things" means the myriad things are formed by the condensation of Yin-Yang essence. "Wandering spirit becomes change" refers to the dispersal and transformation of the Yang aspect (the Hun). The "dispositions of ghosts and spirits" do not refer to the coming and going of concrete entities, but to the ebb and flow of Yin-Yang essence—this is the actual reality (Qing Zhuang) of Gui Shen.

"That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit" (Shen). Here, Shen describes the marvel of Yin-Yang transformation, meaning something beyond intellectual measure. The Appendix III further states: "Spirit has no location, and the Yi has no form." Having no location means it cannot be fixed to a specific place; having no form means it cannot be grasped conceptually. This aligns perfectly with the Zhongyong's "We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them."

Furthermore, the Appendix IV states: "When Yin and Yang combine their virtue, rigidity and flexibility acquire form, thereby embodying the patterns of Heaven and Earth, and connecting with the virtue of the spiritual bright beings (Shen Ming Zhi De)." These four characters directly echo the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" (Gui Shen Zhi De) in the Zhongyong. Thus, the Zhongyong's discussion of Gui Shen emerges from the same intellectual system as the Yizhuan.

Synthesizing the views of the pre-Qin thinkers, the concept of Gui Shen had at least three layers of meaning:

First Layer: Personified spirits—the Celestial Lord, ancestors, and deities of mountains and rivers. This ancient faith is frequently seen in the Book of Odes and the Book of Documents.

Second Layer: Functional spirits—the ebb and flow of Yin-Yang essence. This is the rational interpretation offered by pre-Qin philosophers, held by Zichan, the Yizhuan, and Zhuangzi.

Third Layer: Existential/Boundary spirits—the subtle manifestation of the Dao-substance, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity. This is the unique contribution of the Zhongyong.

The Zhongyong's discourse on Gui Shen integrates all three layers, converging on the third. It does not deny the concrete spirits in sacrifice ("They cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices"), nor does it reject the interpretation based on the flow of Qi ("We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them; yet they integrate with all things and cannot be left out"), but ultimately reduces the meaning of Gui Shen to "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity"—a more fundamental metaphysical proposition.

Section 3: Why does the Zhongyong introduce the discussion of "Ghosts and Spirits"$9

We must now ask a crucial question: Since the Zhongyong is about the "Way of the Mean," why dedicate a chapter to ghosts and spirits$10 What is the relationship between the concept of Gui Shen and the Way of the Mean$11

The answer lies in the structure of the entire Zhongyong.

The text begins by stating, "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature (Xing)," referring to the inherent nature bestowed by the heavenly Dao. It then proceeds, "following this nature is what we call the Way (Dao)," the unfolding of that nature. Finally, "cultivating this Way is what we call education (Jiao)," referring to human effort.

However, the "Way" (Dao) is something that "cannot be left for a moment; if it could be left, it would not be the Dao." Although this Way is inseparable from daily human use, its substance is extremely subtle and remote, beyond the reach of eyes and ears. How can we prove the actual existence of this Way$12 How can we prove that "cannot be left for a moment" is not empty talk$13

The Zhongyong's strategy is to use ghosts and spirits as an example.

Ghosts and spirits are subtle: we look but do not see, listen but do not hear. Yet, they "integrate with all things and cannot be left out," causing all under Heaven to purify themselves and don solemn robes to receive sacrifices—this is their manifestation. From the subtle to the manifest, "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!" The Dao-substance is likewise. You cannot see it or hear it, but it is everywhere and always present, functioning within all things and admitting no omission.

Therefore, the core logical argument of the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" chapter is:

By means of the "subtle yet manifest" nature of Gui Shen, it analogizes and proves the "subtle yet manifest" nature of the Dao-substance, thereby leading to the proposition that "authenticity cannot be concealed."

This is why the Zhongyong discusses Gui Shen. It is not engaging in theology or religious studies, but offering a metaphysical argument. Ghosts and spirits serve merely as an illustration, a passage, a bridge, through which the Zhongyong guides the reader toward the ontology of "Authenticity" (Cheng).

This argumentative strategy is not unique in pre-Qin thought. The Yizhuan also uses Gui Shen as an entry point for understanding the Dao of Yin-Yang. The Yizhuan states that "Refined essence forms things, wandering spirit becomes change, therefore we know the dispositions of ghosts and spirits," and then, "If one is similar to Heaven and Earth, one does not deviate. If one understands the totality of the myriad things and thus assists the world with the Dao, one does not transgress. If one travels widely without drifting, delights in Heaven and knows one's fate, one is free from worry. If one settles firmly in benevolence and is sincere, one can love." Its discussion of Gui Shen serves to manifest the Dao of Heaven and Earth.

Chapter 2: "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits! How Abundant It Is!"—A Line-by-Line Exegesis

Section 1: "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits! How Abundant It Is!"

The key to this opening line lies in the word De (Virtue).

The character De has rich meanings in pre-Qin texts. Its original meaning is "to gain" (De). The Guanzi: Heart Methods (Part 1) states: "De is gain. What is gain is what is obtained as such." It also states: "That which is void, subtle, and without form is called the Dao; that which nurtures and transforms the myriad things is called De." Here, Dao and De are juxtaposed: Dao is the substance, De is the function.

The I Ching, Appendix III states: "Making benevolence manifest, storing it in function, stirring the myriad things without sharing the sage's worry—this is the utmost of great virtue and great accomplishment!" It also states: "Abundance of possessions is called great accomplishment; daily renewal is called abundant virtue (Sheng De)."

The Sheng (Abundant) in Sheng De does not mean quantity, but rather fullness, perfection, and immense magnitude. "The virtue of ghosts and spirits! How abundant it is!"—the function, efficacy, and virtue manifested by Gui Shen are so grand and full!

Why is it called "abundant"$14 Because the characteristics described next—looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard, integrating with all things without omission—demonstrate that the virtue of Gui Shen is omnipresent and all-encompassing; its function is maximal. Precisely because they are unseen and unheard, yet everywhere, they are "abundant." If they were concrete objects that could be seen or heard, they would be limited, not abundant.

This meaning closely aligns with Laozi, Chapter 41:

"The Great Square has no corners. The Great Vessel is completed late. The Great Sound is seldom heard. The Great Image has no form. The Dao is hidden and nameless. It is only the Dao that is good at assisting and completing."

The Great Square without corners means the greatest square has no sharp edges. The Great Sound seldom heard means the greatest sound is inaudible. The Great Image has no form means the greatest image lacks shape. The Dao described by Laozi possesses the characteristic of "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard." And "good at assisting and completing" is precisely the meaning of "integrates with all things and cannot be left out."

Thus, the virtue of Gui Shen is "abundant" precisely because it is formless, soundless, yet everywhere. This is an infinite efficacy transcending finite existence.

Section 2: "We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them"

"We look for them and do not see them" (Shi zhi er bu jian); "we listen for them and do not hear them" (Ting zhi er bu wen).

These two phrases state that the virtue of Gui Shen is beyond the reach of the sensory organs.

In pre-Qin texts, "not seen" and "not heard" are often used to describe the ultimate Dao or the most subtle principle.

Laozi, Chapter 14, states:

"Looked at and not seen is called Yi. Listened to and not heard is called Xi. Grasped at and not obtained is called Wei. These three cannot be inquired into further, so they are combined into one. Above, it is not bright; below, it is not dark. It continues endlessly and cannot be named, returning to nothingness. This is called the formless form, the image of nothingness—this is called Obscure. Greet it and its head cannot be seen; follow it and its tail cannot be found."

The "not seen" (Bu jian) and "not heard" (Bu wen) of the Zhongyong are almost identical to those in Laozi. What does this show$15

It shows that both Confucian and Daoist schools shared the same linguistic framework and conceptual structure when describing the "Dao-substance" or the "most subtle fundamental principle." Both believed that ultimate reality transcends sensory experience—it cannot be seen, heard, or touched. However, this does not mean it does not exist—on the contrary, it exists in a more fundamental way.

Yet, while sharing this description, the aims of Confucianism and Daoism differ. Laozi's "not seen" and "not heard" point to the void-like and elusive nature of the Dao as a substance. The Zhongyong's "not seen" and "not heard" point to the subtle magnificence of the "Authentic" substance as it integrates with things. Laozi understands incomparability through the lens of "Nothingness" (Wu), whereas the Zhongyong understands it through the lens of "Authenticity" (Cheng).

Why "not seen" and "not heard"$16 Because Gui Shen (or the Dao-substance, or the Authentic substance) is not a concrete "thing." Anything that can be seen must have a form and color; anything that can be heard must have a sound and resonance. Having form, color, sound, or resonance means it must be finite—if it has this form, it lacks that form; if it has this sound, it lacks that sound. But the virtue of Gui Shen pervades all things without exception. If it could be seen or heard, it would become one thing among the myriad things, thus limited, and no longer "abundant."

The I Ching, Appendix III offers an excellent exposition of this idea:

"One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao; what follows it is good (Shan); what completes it is nature (Xing). The benevolent see it and call it benevolence; the wise see it and call it wisdom. The common people use it daily yet do not know it, hence the Way of the exemplary person is rare."

"The common people use it daily yet do not know it"—this is another way of expressing "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard." People use it every day without knowing because the Dao has no form or sound, and though omnipresent, it does not present itself as any specific object.

The Appendix III also states: "Spirit has no location, and the Yi has no form." Spirit has no fixed location, and the Yi has no fixed form. This "no location" and "no form" is precisely the reason for "not seen" and "not heard."

Section 3: "Yet they integrate with all things and cannot be left out"

This line is critical, serving as the pivot of the entire chapter.

The phrase "integrate with all things" (Ti Wu) requires careful distinction. Here, Ti is used as a verb, meaning "to embody in things," "to inhere within things," or "to take things as its body." Yi means omission or neglect. "Integrate with all things and cannot be left out" (Ti Wu Er Bu Ke Yi)—the virtue of Gui Shen inheres within every single thing, and not one thing is omitted.

Why emphasize "cannot be left out"$17

Because the previous lines stated "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard," which might lead the reader to ask: If it cannot be seen or heard, is it not ethereal and dispensable$18 "Integrate with all things and cannot be left out" is the response to this question—although it cannot be seen or heard, it is not nonexistent; it exists by "integrating with all things," without exception.

The logic here is exquisitely fine:

"Not seen" / "Not heard"—indicates that the virtue of Gui Shen cannot be directly apprehended by the senses (it is not an objectified existence).

"Integrate with all things and cannot be left out"—indicates that the virtue of Gui Shen is inherent in all things, omnipresent (it is not an existence separate from things).

Taken together: The virtue of Gui Shen is neither an object that can be seen and heard (if it were an object, it would be limited), nor is it a nothingness detached from things (if it were nothingness, it would be useless). It is "both transcendent and immanent," "both invisible and omnipresent"—this is the core insight of pre-Qin metaphysics regarding the Dao-substance.

This idea is widely echoed in pre-Qin texts.

Laozi, Chapter 34, states:

"The Great Dao is ubiquitous; it can be on the left or the right. The myriad things rely on it to live and do not refuse; when their task is done, they do not claim credit. It nourishes all things but does not act as master; it is always without desire, yet can be called small. The myriad things return to it but it does not act as master, so it can be called great. Because it never claims greatness for itself, it can achieve greatness."

"The myriad things rely on it to live and do not refuse," "It nourishes all things but does not act as master"—this is the meaning of "integrate with all things and cannot be left out." The Dao inheres in things, nurturing them, without existing in the form of any specific thing.

Zhuangzi, The Equality of Things states: "Where does the Dao hide that it has truth and falsehood$19 Where do words hide that they have right and wrong$20 Where does the Dao go that it does not exist$21 Where do words exist that they cannot be asserted$22" And further: "The Dao never began with boundaries, and words never possessed constant definitions."

"Where does the Dao go that it does not exist$23"—The implication is that the Dao exists everywhere. This is the best commentary on "integrate with all things and cannot be left out."

Zhuangzi, Zhi Bei You contains an excellent dialogue: Dongguo Zi asked Zhuangzi: "Where is this so-called Dao$24" Zhuangzi replied: "It is nowhere that it is not." Dongguo Zi said: "Tell me specifically, so that I can apprehend it." Zhuangzi replied: "It is in the ants." Dongguo Zi: "How low!" Zhuangzi: "It is in the weeds and millet." Dongguo Zi: "How much lower!" Zhuangzi: "It is in tiles and bricks." Dongguo Zi: "How much worse!" Zhuangzi: "It is in excrement and urine." Dongguo Zi could not reply. Zhuangzi said:

"Your question, sir, does not reach the substance. When Zheng Huo asked the market supervisor about the boar's fat, he said, 'The lower it is, the more substantial it seems.' You should realize there is no place where things escape the Dao. The ultimate Dao is like this; grand words are the same. Zhou (All), Bian (Pervasive), Xian (Complete)—these three names have the same reality; their intent is one."

"No place where things escape the Dao" (Wu hu tao wu)—the Dao does not escape any single thing, serving as the perfect footnote to "integrate with all things and cannot be left out." The ultimate Dao is present in ants, weeds, bricks, tiles, and even excrement and urine—the Dao exists in every single thing, regardless of its perceived nobility or baseness.

However, although Zhuangzi shares the concept of "no escape from things" with the Zhongyong's "cannot be left out," their ultimate aims differ. Zhuangzi's "no escape from things" aims to dissolve the distinctions between self and other, right and wrong, noble and base, culminating in the "Equality of Things" (Qi Wu). The Zhongyong's "cannot be left out" aims to manifest the omnipresence of the "Authentic" substance, culminating in "completion" (Cheng).

This subtle difference marks the boundary between Confucian and Daoist thought.

Section 4: "They cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices"

After discussing the subtlety and omnipresence of Gui Shen in the first three lines, this line suddenly shifts to human affairs—all under Heaven purify themselves, clarify their minds, and don solemn robes to receive sacrifices.

This sudden turn is highly significant.

Why shift from "not seen, not heard" to the matter of sacrifice$25

Because the Zhongyong's purpose in discussing Gui Shen is not to establish a doctrine of ghosts and spirits, but to explain "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity." Although the virtue of Gui Shen is imperceptible to sight and hearing, it is capable of eliciting deep awe in all under Heaven, prompting them to purify themselves and don solemn robes to receive sacrifices—this is the best evidence of "subtle made manifest."

Qi (齐) means Zhai (斋, purification/fasting). The Liji: Jì Tǒng states:

"When the time for sacrifice is approaching, the exemplary person undertakes purification (Qi). Purification means making the uneven even; it is causing the unevenness to reach an even state. Therefore, the exemplary person does not undertake purification unless there is a major matter or profound reverence. If one is not purified, one has no restraint towards things, and desires and lusts are unrestrained. When one is about to purify, one restrains evil influences, completely subdues desires and lusts; the ears do not listen to music, the heart does not wander in stray thoughts; one must depend upon the Dao."

"Qi bu qi yi zhi qi zhe ye"—to bring the uneven mind into unity, to cause it to converge in one place. This Qi refers not only to external cleansing but to the unification of the inner mind and will.

Ming (明, clear) means clarity and purity, referring to the mind being clear and untainted by evil filth during the period of purification.

Sheng Fu (盛服, solemn robes) refers to wearing the most respectful attire. The Liji: Jiyi states: "On the day of purification, one reflects on where the departed dwelled, reflects on their laughter and speech, reflects on their intentions and thoughts, reflects on what they enjoyed. After purifying for three days, one truly sees what they purified themselves for." It further states: "On the day of sacrifice, entering the ancestral hall, one senses that they are in their seat. Walking around outside the door, one solemnly hears the sound of their sighs. Listening outside the door, one clearly hears the sound of their sighs."

This practice of purification (Zhai Jie) is precisely the effort to transform the scattered mind of daily life into a state of unified reverence. In this state, the sacrificer seems to truly sense the presence of the Gui Shen. This is the meaning of "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them" mentioned below.

The word Cheng (承, receive/bear) in "to receive the ancestral sacrifices" also carries deep meaning. Cheng means to bear or to respectfully receive. It does not mean man seeks out Gui Shen, but rather that man, with a sincere and reverent heart, receives the descent of the Gui Shen's virtue. This word implies an important relationship: the virtue of Gui Shen actively "integrates with things," while man's response is "reception"—opening oneself with a sincere heart to receive the descent of this subtle virtue.

Why would all under Heaven purify themselves and wear solemn robes to receive sacrifices$26 Why would people feel such deep awe toward Gui Shen that are unseen and unheard$27 This is precisely the power of the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity." Although the virtue of Gui Shen is imperceptible, its "authenticity"—its true, non-artificial fundamental reality—cannot be concealed. It evokes a response deep within the human heart, compelling reverence, awe, and the most pious attitude toward it.

We can reference the words from the Book of Documents: Great Plan of Yu (Shangshu: Da Yu Mo) for comparison:

"The Emperor said: 'Come, Yu! When the floods came, you warned me; you achieved success through sincere effort. Diligent in governance, frugal in the household, not arrogant or boastful—only you are worthy. Because you are not self-satisfied, no one under Heaven vies with you in ability; because you do not boast, no one vies with you in merit. I commend your virtue and praise your great achievements. Heaven's mandate is in your person; you shall ultimately ascend to the highest throne. The hearts of men are precarious; the heart of the Dao is subtle. Be refined and unified; firmly grasp the Mean.'"

"The heart of the Dao is subtle" (Dao Xin Wei Wei)—the heart of the Dao is extremely subtle. But precisely because it is "refined and unified" (Wei Jing Wei Yi), if one perceives it with the utmost sincere and unified heart, one can "firmly grasp the Mean" (Yun Zhi Zhong). This corresponds perfectly to the Zhongyong's discussion: although the virtue of Gui Shen is subtle, when perceived by a sincere heart, it naturally manifests.

The Book of Documents: Jin Teng records Duke Zhou's prayer on behalf of King Wu:

"Duke Zhou stood upon the altar terrace, holding a jade disk and a jade tablet, and addressed the Great King, King Ji, and King Wen."

Duke Zhou faced deceased ancestors—Great King, King Ji, and King Wen. These three are unseen and unheard. Yet, Duke Zhou prayed with utmost sincerity, offering his own body to take on King Wu's illness. The result was that King Wu recovered shortly after. Regardless of the historical veracity of this event, its recording and transmission in pre-Qin literature demonstrate the deep conviction that the utmost sincerity could resonate with Gui Shen.

Section 5: "Overflowing as if above them, as if beside them"

"Yang Yang (洋洋乎)" describes the appearance of flowing and being full. The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Wen Wang states: "King Wen is above, clearly visible in Heaven. Though Zhou is an old state, its mandate is renewed. If Zhou were not manifest, Heaven's mandate would not endure. When King Wen ascended and descended, he was beside the Lord on High."

This line, "When King Wen ascended and descended, he was beside the Lord on High," can be compared with "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them." Although the spirit of King Wen is imperceptible, when the people of Zhou sincerely sacrificed to him, they felt overflowingly as if he were above them and beside them—this is the manifestation of Gui Shen being "as if present."

Note the use of the word "Ru" (如, as if). "As if above them, as if beside them"—it is "as if present," not "actually present." This particle "Ru" precisely echoes the earlier "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard": you truly cannot see or hear them, but after sincere purification, you experience a strong sense of their "as if presence."

Where does this sense of "as if presence" come from$28

It does not come from external sensory stimuli (because they are "not seen," "not heard"), nor does it come from rational inference. It comes from "Authenticity" (Cheng)—from the convergence of the sacrificer's ultimate sincerity and the subtle virtue of Gui Shen.

Confucius's saying in the Analects, Ba Yi: "When attending a sacrifice, act as if the spirit is present; when sacrificing to spirits, act as if they are present"—this is the meaning. "As if present" does not mean "not present," nor does it mean "certainly present"; rather, it is a unique experience that transcends the binary opposition of "present" and "absent." In the state of utmost sincerity, the distinction between "present" and "absent" dissolves, leaving only a unified state filled with awe and resonance.

This state has deep roots in the pre-Qin sacrificial tradition. The Liji: Jiyi states:

"When King Wen sacrificed, he served the dead as if they were living, and thought of the dead as if he did not wish to live. On the anniversary of their death, he mourned with grief, and referred to their names as if seeing them in person. In the utmost loyalty of sacrifice, it was as if seeing what the departed cherished, and having the expression one assumes when seeing a beloved relative. Is this not King Wen$29 The Book of Odes says: 'At dawn I cannot sleep, thinking of two people.' This is King Wen's poem. The day after the sacrifice, unable to sleep at dawn, one feasts and brings it to completion, and then continues to think of them. On the day of sacrifice, joy and sorrow are half and half. Feasting must be joyful, and when completed, there must be sorrow; I see from this the character of King Wen."

"Serving the dead as if they were living"—treating the deceased as if they were alive. This use of "Ru" carries the same meaning as the "Ru" in "as if above them, as if beside them." When King Wen sacrificed to his ancestors, he fully immersed himself with sincerity, causing the boundary between presence and absence to dissolve, and the barrier between death and life to be broken through.

This experience is not superstition or hallucination; it is the ultimate manifestation of the function of "Authenticity" (Cheng). Precisely because the virtue of Gui Shen "integrates with all things and cannot be left out," and because human sincerity is sufficient to resonate with this subtle virtue, there arises the experience of "overflowing as if present."

Section 6: Citing the Odes: "The arrival of the spirits, how cannot it be fathomed! Much less can they be scorned!"

The Zhongyong cites the Book of Odes here as proof. This poem comes from the Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Yi (Da Ya: Yi), which is quite long and serves as a self-admonition by Duke Wu of Wei. One section reads:

"The arrival of the spirits (Shen Zhi Ge Si), how cannot it be fathomed (Bu Ke Du Si)! Much less can they be scorned (Shen Ke She Si)!"

Ge (格) means arrival or coming. Si (思) is an exclamatory particle, like Zhi or Xi. Du (度) means to estimate or fathom. Shen (矧) means moreover or much less. She (射) means disgust or scornful negligence (also interpreted as Yi, meaning weariness or disrespect).

The entire line means: The descent of the spirits cannot be fathomed! Much less can one be scornful or disrespectful!

The Zhongyong quotes this ode to emphasize that the Gui Shen are "unfathomable" and "not to be slighted." You cannot predict when or how the spirits will descend—this is the "subtle" aspect. But precisely because they are unfathomable, one must maintain reverence and sincerity without the slightest neglect—this is the appropriate response to the "subtle."

The primary theme of the Ode: Yi is Duke Wu's cautious self-admonition. The opening stanza states:

"Solemn is the bearing and demeanor, which marks the corner of virtue. Men also say: No wise man is not foolish. The foolishness of the common man is due to ignorance. The foolishness of the wise man is due to such perversity."

This speaks of self-reflection. If the wise man does not remain vigilant, he too will fall into foolishness. Thus, one must be constantly cautious. The ode continues:

"Look at your friends, the exemplary men; be gentle in your countenance, and you will not err afar. When seen in your room, you should not feel ashamed even before the dark corner. Do not say, 'It is not manifest, no one sees me.' The arrival of the spirits, how cannot it be fathomed! Much less can they be scorned!"

"When seen in your room, you should not feel ashamed even before the dark corner" (Wu kui yu wu lou)—even when alone in a hidden chamber, one should not feel ashamed in one's heart. "Do not say, 'It is not manifest, no one sees me.'" Immediately following this is the quote: "The arrival of the spirits cannot be fathomed, much less can they be scorned!"—because the descent of the spirits is unpredictable, you never know when it will come!

This meaning is profound. The Zhongyong's opening chapter states: "Nothing is more visible than what is hidden, nothing is more manifest than what is subtle; therefore, the exemplary person is cautious when alone" (Shen Qi Du). In the most hidden places, in the most unwitnessed moments, the goodness and badness, the sincerity and falsehood of the heart are most exposed. The descent of Gui Shen is "unfathomable" (Bu Ke Du)—you cannot anticipate when it will come—therefore, you must always maintain reverence and always maintain sincerity. This is the deeper foundation for the discipline of "caution when alone."

Thus, the Zhongyong's citation of this ode is not just about the unpredictability of Gui Shen, but also provides a metaphysical basis for the discipline of "caution when alone." Gui Shen "integrate with all things and cannot be left out" and are "unfathomable"—this is the metaphysical root of "Nothing is more visible than what is hidden, nothing is more manifest than what is subtle."

Section 7: "Indeed, the subtle and the manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!"

This final line summarizes the entire chapter: the three characters "subtle yet manifest" (Wei zhi Xian) encapsulate the chapter's argumentative logic; the five characters "inextinguishable nature of authenticity" (Cheng zhi Bu Ke Yan) clarify the chapter's ultimate thesis.

"Subtle yet manifest"—from the subtle to the clear. The virtue of Gui Shen, its substance is extremely subtle (unseen, unheard), yet its function is extremely manifest (integrates with all things, causes all under Heaven to purify themselves, overflowing as if present). This "subtle" and "manifest" are not opposing ends, but two faces of one substance. Precisely because it is "subtle" (formless, soundless, omnipresent), it is "manifest" (integrates with all things, functioning everywhere without omission).

This logical pattern of "subtle yet manifest" repeatedly appears in pre-Qin texts.

The I Ching, Appendix IV states: "Subtlety (Ji) is the slight movement, the first sign of fortune and misfortune. The exemplary person acts upon subtlety, not waiting for the whole day." This character Ji is a specific manifestation of "subtle yet manifest"—the initial sign of change is extremely subtle, yet those who observe well can foresee the major trend of fortune and misfortune from it.

Laozi, Chapter 64, states: "What is about to be grasped, must first be extended; what is about to be weakened, must first be strengthened; what is about to be ruined, must first be promoted; what is about to be taken, must first be given. This is subtle clarity (Wei Ming)."

Wei Ming (subtle clarity)—these two words are exquisite. "Subtle" is one of its characteristics. Yet the practitioner of the subtle Dao is "deep and unknowable," yet their actions manifest in appearance and conduct—this is the "manifest." The subtle Dao manifests through appearance and conduct; this is "subtle yet manifest."

The Great Learning (Da Xue) states: "To make one's intentions sincere, one must not deceive oneself... This is called being sincere inwardly and manifest outwardly (Cheng Yu Zhong, Xing Yu Wai); therefore, the exemplary person must be cautious when alone." This "sincere inwardly, manifest outwardly" is the expression of "subtle yet manifest" on the level of moral cultivation. The sincerity or falsehood of the heart (subtle) will inevitably manifest in external words and deeds (manifest). The petty person thinks that "when dwelling alone, they do evil with no restraint," believing no one knows—this is failing to understand "subtle yet manifest." Yet, "when others look at one, it is as if seeing one's lungs and liver"—the inner good and evil cannot be concealed.

Furthermore, the Da Xue quotes the Book of Odes: "Gazing at the banks of the Qi, the bamboo grows lushly. There is a refined gentleman, as if cut and filed, as if carved and polished." It also quotes Zengzi: "The eyes of ten people are watching, the fingers of ten people are pointing—how solemn!" Even when alone and unwitnessed, it is as if ten pairs of eyes are watching and ten fingers are pointing. This is the "subtle yet manifest"—the moral pressure generated by the realization that the most hidden place is precisely the most manifest.

Chapter 3: The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits and Pre-Qin Sacrificial Tradition

Section 1: The Original Meaning of High Antiquity Sacrifice

To deeply understand the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits," one must examine the pre-Qin sacrificial tradition, as the argument in this chapter is based upon the experience of sacrifice.

Ancient sacrifice was not merely a product of superstition but held profound cultural significance.

The Liji: Jì Tǒng states:

"In governing people, nothing is more urgent than rites. Rites have five constants, none more important than sacrifice. Sacrifice is not something that comes from outside to within; it arises from the heart within. When the heart is awestruck and applies rites to it, only the worthy can fully exhaust the meaning of sacrifice."

"Not something that comes from outside to within; it arises from the heart within"—sacrifice is not external spirits seeking men out, but sincere reverence arising from the heart. "When the heart is awestruck and applies rites to it"—when the heart is moved, it is then expressed through the form of rites. This is the original meaning of sacrifice.

It further states:

"Sacrifice is not something that comes from outside to within; it arises from the heart within. When the heart is awestruck and applies rites to it, only the worthy can fully exhaust the meaning of sacrifice. When the worthy sacrifice, they must receive their fortune (Fu). This is not the fortune spoken of in this world. Fortune means completeness (Bei). Completeness is the name for a hundred fulfillments; he who has nothing unfulfilled is called complete. This means that within, one fulfills oneself, and without, one conforms to the Dao. A loyal minister serves his ruler; a filial son serves his parents; the foundation is the same."

The fortune (Fu) sought through sacrifice is not worldly fortune but "completeness" (Bei)—"a hundred fulfillments," meaning nothing is unfulfilled. "Within, one fulfills oneself, and without, one conforms to the Dao"—one fulfills one's inner sincerity and reverence, and externally conforms to the Great Dao. This is the function of "Authenticity" (Cheng).

Furthermore, the Liji: Jiyi states:

"The nature of sacrifice is great! Its arising brings completeness to things! Is it the foundation of teaching that follows order and completeness$30 Therefore, the teaching of the exemplary person teaches externally to respect their ruler and elders, and internally to be filial to their parents. Therefore, when a wise ruler is in charge, his ministers obey. When the ancestral temples and altars are revered, the descendants are filial and obedient. When one exhausts the Dao and establishes righteousness, teaching is born thereby."

The function of sacrifice is "teaching" (Jiao). Through sacrifice, people learn to respect rulers, serve parents, and practice filial piety. Sacrifice is not only an offering to Gui Shen but also the fundamental means of cultural education.

The Discourses of the States: Chu Language (Part 2) records an extremely important dialogue where King Zhao of Chu asks Guan Shefu about the "Severing of Earth and Heaven" (Jue Di Tian Tong):

"King Zhao asked Guan Shefu: 'What does the Book of Zhou mean by Chong and Li causing Heaven and Earth to become disconnected$31 If this were so, would men be able to ascend to Heaven$32'"

He replied: "This is not what is meant. In antiquity, the people and spirits did not intermingle. When the essence and spirit of the people were unswerving and unified, and they were able to be pure, solemn, upright, and sincere (Qi Su Zhong Zheng), their intelligence could reach up to Heaven and down to Earth with righteousness; their sagacity could illuminate afar; their clarity could shine upon all things; their hearing could penetrate thoroughly—in such a case, the bright spirits would descend upon them. For men, they were called Xian (shaman); for women, they were called Wu (shamaness). They were commanded to establish the positions and masters for the spirits, and prepare the sacrificial animals, vessels, and robes; and then they commanded the descendants of the former sages who possessed brilliance and achievement, who knew the names of mountains and rivers, the masters of the ancestral sacrifices, the affairs of the ancestral temples, the generations of the ancestral line, the diligence of purity and reverence, the propriety of rites and decorum, the dignity of demeanor, and the substance of loyalty and trustworthiness—these people were made the invocators (Zhu). And those whose lineage allowed them to know the growth of the four seasons, the materials for the sacrificial animals, the types of jade and silk, the colors and attire, the measures of the ritual vessels, the order of the sacrifices, the positions of the tablets, the places of the altars, the spirits above and below, and the lineage of the clans, and who followed the ancient precedents in their hearts—these were made the patriarchs (Zong). Thus, there were offices for the categories of people, spirits, and things that connected Heaven, Earth, people, and spirits—these were the Five Offices, each managing its own order without transgression. Thus, the people possessed loyalty and trustworthiness, and the spirits possessed bright virtue; the people and spirits had separate duties, revered each other without profanation. Therefore, the spirits sent down auspicious births, and the people offered their things in sacrifice; disasters did not strike, and the means of supplication were never exhausted."

"When the decline of Shao Hao came, the Jiu Li corrupted virtue, and the people and spirits intermingled, confusing the categories. People began making offerings in their own houses, with each family acting as its own shaman or scribe, without any clear standard. The people became deficient in sacrifice, and did not know their blessings. Offerings were without measure, and people and spirits shared the same status. The people profaned their solemn vows, without solemnity or awe. Spirits became intimate with the people, failing to maintain their proper sphere. Auspicious births did not descend, there was nothing to offer, and disasters came in succession, exhausting all the vital energy. Zhuanxu received this mandate and ordered Chong, the Southern Marshal, to manage Heaven and connect it to the spirits, and ordered Li, the Fire Marshal, to manage Earth and connect it to the people. He commanded them to restore the old order, and not allow transgression or profanation. This is what is meant by 'Severing of Earth and Heaven.'"

This passage, though lengthy, is highly significant. Its core point is: In antiquity, the proper relationship between people and spirits required the people to possess "unwavering essence and spirit" (Jing Shuang Bu Xie Yi) and "purity, solemnity, uprightness, and sincerity" (Qi Su Zhong Zheng)—all manifestations of "Authenticity" (Cheng). When people lost sincerity, the separation between people and spirits became blurred ("people and spirits intermingled"), leading to disorder in sacrifice and disaster.

This directly corresponds to the Zhongyong's point: "They cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices." This purification (Zhai Jie) is the means of maintaining the proper relationship between Heaven and man. Its essence is "Authenticity" (Cheng).

Section 2: Evolution of Sacrificial Rites in the Three Dynasties

The evolution of pre-Qin sacrifices, from high antiquity through the Three Dynasties, involved profound changes.

Xia Dynasty Sacrifice:

Confucius commented on the Three Dynasties in the Analects, Ba Yi: "I can speak of the rites of Xia, but the descendants of Qi are insufficient to attest to them; I can speak of the rites of Yin, but the descendants of Song are insufficient to attest to them. If the documents were sufficient, I could attest to them."

The Liji: Biao Ji records Confucius discussing the teachings of the Three Dynasties:

"The Master said: 'The Way of Xia prized mandate; they served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance, drew close to men and were loyal. Their rewards were straightforward, their punishments measured. They honored first the emoluments, then the authority; they rewarded first, then punished. They were intimate yet not familiar; the deterioration of their people was sluggishness and stupidity, arrogance and rudeness, simplicity without cultivation.'"

The Xia people "served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance"—this attitude of "respecting yet keeping distant" aligns with Confucius's own view. The Xia drew close to men and were loyal, centering on human affairs, respecting Gui Shen but without excess.

Yin Shang Sacrifice:

The Biao Ji continues:

"The people of Yin prized the spirits; they led the people in serving them, prioritizing ghosts over rites, and punishments over rewards. They were revered yet not intimate; the deterioration of their people was recklessness and restlessness, aggression without shame."

The Yin people "prized the spirits" and "led the people in serving them"—the central position of Gui Shen sacrifice in Shang culture is evidenced by the oracle bones. The Shang performed divination for almost everything and constantly consulted the spirits. The frequency and grandeur of their sacrifices far exceeded those of the Xia. However, the flaw was that the people became "reckless and restless"—over-reliance on spirits made the populace unstable.

Zhou Dynasty Sacrifice:

The Biao Ji concludes:

"The people of Zhou prized rites and valued contributions; they served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance, drew close to men and were loyal. Their rewards and punishments were based on rank. They were intimate yet not familiar; the deterioration of their people was profit-seeking and craftiness, elegance without shame, villainy veiled by appearance."

The Zhou "prized rites and valued contributions"—rites were central. "They served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance"—this point is similar to the Xia. The Zhou characteristic was "prizing rites"—integrating Gui Shen sacrifice into the framework of ritual, standardizing and institutionalizing it.

From the evolution across the three dynasties, a clear trajectory emerges: the attitude toward Gui Shen shifted from "respecting yet keeping distant" (Xia), to "prizing spirits and leading the people to serve them" (Yin), and finally returning to "respecting yet keeping distant" while using "rites" for regulation (Zhou). The Zhou's "respecting Gui Shen while keeping them distant" was not disbelief; it was integrating spirit sacrifice into the structure of humane education.

The Zhongyong inherits the tradition of the Zhou rites, further deepening this view. It does not deny the reality of Gui Shen ("integrate with all things and cannot be left out," "overflowing as if present"), but grounds the meaning of Gui Shen in "Authenticity" (Cheng)—a more fundamental metaphysical principle.

Section 3: Why Can "Authenticity" Resonate with Ghosts and Spirits$33

We must now ask a core question: Why can "Authenticity" resonate with Gui Shen$34

In pre-Qin texts, a recurring concept holds that ultimate sincerity can resonate with Heaven, Earth, and the spirits.

The Shangshu: Jin Teng records the famous incident where Duke Zhou prayed to the former kings with utmost sincerity, offering his own body for King Wu's illness. "When the Duke returned, he placed the inscribed document in the bamboo casket. The next day, the King recovered."

The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Zhuang Thirty-second Year records Gong Ziqi advising Duke Yu of Yu:

"I have heard that ghosts and spirits do not naturally associate with men; they rely solely on virtue (De). Thus, the Book of Zhou says: 'Heaven is impartial; it assists only virtue.' It also says: 'Millet and sacrificial grains are not fragrant; bright virtue is fragrant.' It also says: 'The people do not change things; they rely on virtue to transform things.' If this is so, then without virtue, the people are not harmonious, and the spirits do not partake. The place where spirits rely on is virtue. If the Jin takes Yu, and offers up bright virtue as fragrant incense, will the spirits spit it out$1"

This passage is crucial. Gong Ziqi explicitly states: "Gui Shen fei ren shi qin, wei De shi Yi"—Ghosts and spirits do not associate intimately with people; they rely solely on virtue. They do not favor any particular person but rather "rely on virtue." "Shu Ji Fei Xin, Ming De Wei Xin"—Millet and grain are not fragrant; bright virtue is the true fragrance. This means the spiritual efficacy of sacrifice is rooted not in the material offerings, but in the virtue of the sacrificer.

This idea has a wide influence in pre-Qin thought.

The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xiang Eleventh Year quotes Ji Wuzi:

"Ghosts and spirits are not of our lineage; they do not partake in our sacrifices."

While this speaks from the perspective of lineage law, the deeper implication is that there is a kinship of essence and virtue between Gui Shen and man, and only those with ultimate sincerity can achieve resonance.

Synthesizing the above materials, we can summarize the pre-Qin rationale for why "sincerity can resonate with Gui Shen":

First: The essence of Gui Shen is De (virtue, unfeigned reality), and human "Authenticity" (Cheng) is also unfeigned reality. Cheng and De are of the same substance, hence they can resonate. It is like tuning two strings of a lute: if they share the same frequency, sounding one causes the other to vibrate.

Second: Gui Shen "integrate with all things and cannot be left out," being omnipresent. Human sincere heart is also inherent in the deepest part of man. When man opens himself with ultimate sincerity, he naturally touches that omnipresent virtue of Gui Shen.

Third: From the perspective of Yin-Yang Qi transformation, Gui Shen are the ebb and flow of Yin-Yang Qi, and human life is also a condensation of Yin-Yang Qi. Ultimate human sincerity harmonizes one's own Yin-Yang and clears the flow of Qi, thus enabling resonance with the Yin-Yang of Heaven and Earth.

This third point finds clear theoretical support in the I Ching. The I Ching, Xian Gua, Tuan Zhuan states:

"Xian is resonance. Soft above and rigid below, the two Qi resonate and interact, stopping yet delighting. The male goes down to the female, thus it is favorable for perseverance; taking a wife is auspicious. Heaven and Earth resonate, and the myriad things are transformed and born. The sage resonates with the hearts of men, and the world achieves peace. Observe what resonates, and the nature of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things can be known."

"The two Qi resonate and interact"—the mutual resonance of Yin and Yang is the essence of Xian (Resonance). By extension, all connections between Heaven, Earth, and things are based on "resonance." Heaven and Earth resonate, and the myriad things are transformed and born; the sage resonates with human hearts, and the world achieves peace. The resonance between the virtue of Gui Shen and human sincerity is also a form of this "resonance."

Furthermore, the I Ching, Appendix III states: "The Yi has no thought, no deliberate action; it is still and motionless, yet responsive, it consequently permeates the world. If not for the ultimate spirit (Zhi Shen), who could share in this$2" "Still and motionless, yet responsive" (Jì Rán Bu Dong, Gan Er Sui Tong)—this perfectly describes the virtue of Gui Shen. The virtue of Gui Shen is itself "still and motionless" (unseen, unheard), but once there is "response" (ultimate human sincerity), it "consequently permeates the world"—all things change because of this resonance. This "ultimate spirit" (Zhi Shen) is the "Spirit" in the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits."

Chapter 4: The Thinking Pattern of "Subtle yet Manifest" and Pre-Qin Philosophy

Section 1: The Dialectic of "Subtle" and "Manifest"

"Subtle yet manifest" (Wei zhi Xian)—these three characters contain an extremely profound thinking pattern in pre-Qin philosophy.

"Subtle" (Wei) refers to that which is hidden and imperceptible. "Manifest" (Xian) refers to that which is clear and perceptible. "Subtle yet manifest"—from the subtle to the manifest, the subtle is the manifest, the subtle contains the manifest, and the subtle is not separate from the manifest.

This thinking pattern appears widely in pre-Qin classics.

"Subtle yet Manifest" in the I Ching:

The Appendix IV states: "Knowing subtlety (Ji) is spiritual! The exemplary person does not flatter those above him, nor is he disrespectful to those below him; his knowledge approaches this. Subtlety is the slight movement, the first sign of fortune. The exemplary person acts upon subtlety, not waiting for the whole day."

"Ji zhe Dong Zhi Wei"—Ji is the most subtle sign of change. Yet this most subtle sign is "the first sign of fortune and misfortune"—it portends great fortune or disaster. This is "subtle yet manifest": what seems like a negligible clue actually contains significant information.

The Kun Gua, Wen Yan states: "A family that accumulates good deeds will have surplus blessings; a family that accumulates evil deeds will have surplus misfortunes. A minister killing his sovereign, a son killing his father—this is not the work of a single morning or evening; it has gradually accumulated from an early point, from the failure to distinguish it early on. The Yi says: 'Stepping on frost signals the coming of hard ice.' This speaks of yielding."

"Stepping on frost signals the coming of hard ice"—stepping on frost indicates that hard ice is about to arrive. Frost is the "subtle," hard ice is the "manifest." "It has gradually accumulated"—the subtle becoming manifest is not instantaneous but gradual. This is the manifestation of "subtle yet manifest" in historical events.

"Subtle yet Manifest" in Laozi:

Laozi, Chapter 15, states: "Those who anciently excelled in following the Dao were subtle, profound, and mysteriously penetrating, so deep that they could not be known."

"Wei Miao Xuan Tong" (subtle, profound, mysteriously penetrating)—"subtle" is one of its characteristics. Yet the practitioner of the Dao who is "deep and unknowable" acts in ways described as: "Cautious as if crossing a winter river; Hesitant as if fearing neighbors; Solemn as if a guest; Unfettered as if ice about to melt; Solid as if an uncarved block; Open as if a valley; Turbulent as if mixed with silt." All these descriptions are "manifest." The subtle Dao manifests in countenance and conduct; this is "subtle yet manifest."

Laozi, Chapter 36, states: "What one wants to contract, one must first expand; what one wants to weaken, one must first strengthen; what one wants to discard, one must first promote; what one wants to take, one must first give. This is subtle clarity (Wei Ming)."

Wei Ming—these words are extremely precise. "Subtle" means "clear"; the obscure is the clear. The principle of the Dao may be subtle, but its effect is very obvious. This "subtle clarity" echoes the Zhongyong's "subtle yet manifest."

"Subtle yet Manifest" in the Da Xue:

The Da Xue states: "To make one's intentions sincere (Cheng Qi Yi) is to not deceive oneself... This is called being sincere inwardly and manifest outwardly (Cheng Yu Zhong, Xing Yu Wai); therefore, the exemplary person must be cautious when alone." The sincerity or falsehood of the inner heart (subtle) must manifest in external words and deeds (manifest). The petty person thinks that "when dwelling alone, they do evil with no restraint," believing no one knows—this is failing to understand "subtle yet manifest." Yet, "when others look at one, it is as if seeing one's lungs and liver"—the inner good and evil cannot be concealed.

The Da Xue also quotes the Odes: "Gazing at the banks of the Qi, the bamboo grows lushly. There is a refined gentleman, as if cut and filed, as if carved and polished." This echoes the solemn pressure of being watched, which is the realization that even in solitude, one is exposed.

Section 2: Why does the "Subtle" become "Manifest"$3—Pre-Qin Answers

Since this pattern of "subtle yet manifest" is so pervasive in pre-Qin thought, how did pre-Qin thinkers explain why the "subtle" becomes "manifest"$4

Answer 1: Theory of Qi Resonance.

Pre-Qin theories of Yin-Yang Qi transformation held that Heaven, Earth, and all things are the flowing of Yin-Yang Qi. The subtle aspects of Qi (like the virtue of Gui Shen), though imperceptible to sight and hearing, belong to the same Qi as the coarse and manifest aspects (like tangible objects with sound and form), hence they can resonate. This aligns with the I Ching, Appendix III's statement: "Like sounds respond to each other, like Qi seeks its kind."

"Water flows downward to dampness, fire ascends toward dryness; clouds follow the dragon, wind follows the tiger. When the sage arises, the myriad things are seen. That which follows Heaven approaches above, that which follows Earth approaches below, so each follows its own kind."

Everything follows its own kind: the subtle resonates with the subtle, the manifest with the manifest, and the subtle and manifest are connected by Qi.

Answer 2: Natural Manifestation of the Dao-Substance.

Laozi states: "The Dao gives birth to One; One gives birth to Two; Two gives birth to Three; Three gives birth to the myriad things." The Dao substance is supremely subtle ("The Dao is hidden and nameless"), but it naturally unfolds into the myriad things—this unfolding process is "subtle yet manifest." It is not an external force making it manifest, but its inherent necessity making it manifest.

"Subtle Clarity" (Wei Ming)—this term is extremely precise. "Subtle" means "clear"; the obscure is the clear. The principle of the Dao may be subtle, but its effect is very obvious. This "subtle clarity" coincides with the Zhongyong's "subtle yet manifest."

Answer 3: The Resonant Capacity of the Human Heart.

Man is able to perceive the "subtle yet manifest" because the human heart itself possesses the capacity for resonance.

Mencius, Jin Xin (Part 1) states: "To exhaust one's mind is to know one's nature. Knowing one's nature, one knows Heaven. To preserve one's mind and nourish one's nature is how one serves Heaven. To remain indifferent to longevity or early death, and cultivate the self while awaiting it, is how one establishes one's fate."

The human mind has the ability to "exhaust the mind to know nature and know Heaven"—that is, to arrive at the farthest reaches (Heaven) from the closest point (the mind). This is the human capacity for resonance. Because of this capacity, man can experience in sacrifice that the Gui Shen are "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them"—one can perceive the subtle manifestation of the virtue of Gui Shen.

Mencius, Gongsun Chou (Part 1) states: "When Qi is cultivated this way, it is most vast and most rigid. If nourished uprightly without harm, it fills the space between Heaven and Earth." This "vast and mighty Qi" is cultivated by human ultimate sincerity. With this Qi, one connects with the Qi of Heaven and Earth and naturally resonates with all subtle virtues.

Section 3: The Logical Connection Between "Subtle yet Manifest" and "Caution When Alone" (Shen Du)—The Inner Logic of Pre-Qin Cultivation

"Subtle yet manifest" is not only a metaphysical proposition but also the inner logic of pre-Qin self-cultivation.

The Zhongyong, Chapter 1, states:

"The Way (Dao) cannot be left for a moment; if it could be left, it would not be the Dao. Therefore, the exemplary person is cautious when he does not see, and fearful when he does not hear. Nothing is more visible than what is hidden, nothing is more manifest than what is subtle; therefore, the exemplary person is cautious when alone (Shen Qi Du)."

"Nothing is more visible than what is hidden, nothing is more manifest than what is subtle"—why$5 Because of "subtle yet manifest"—because the nature of "Authenticity" is inextinguishable. In the most hidden moments of solitude, the good and evil, the sincerity and falsehood of the human heart are precisely most exposed. Why$6 Because in public, one can feign and embellish; but in solitude, the impetus for pretense disappears, and one's true face naturally emerges. This true face, whether good or evil, sincere or false, is "subtle" and hidden, but it is precisely the most "manifest"—it determines the fundamental quality of that person.

Thus, the discipline of "caution when alone" (Shen Du) is established upon the cognition of "subtle yet manifest." Knowing "subtle yet manifest," knowing that "authenticity cannot be concealed," one is especially cautious when alone—because this very moment is when one is most truly facing oneself.

This meaning is repeatedly emphasized in the Da Xue: "To make one's intentions sincere, one must not deceive oneself." Because self-deception is ultimately futile—"authenticity cannot be concealed"—one's self-deception will eventually "manifest outwardly" and be seen by others.

From this, we can see the inner logic of pre-Qin Confucian cultivation:

The essence of the Heavenly Dao is "Authenticity" (Cheng - unfeigned reality).
Human nature receives this from the Heavenly Dao, so human nature is also "Authenticity."
The essence of "Authenticity" is "inextinguishable"—true things will eventually manifest.
Therefore, the key to cultivation is "caution when alone"—maintaining sincerity in the most subtle moments, because that is precisely where manifestation is easiest.
If one is cautious when alone, then the inner and outer are unified; if inner and outer are unified, then "sincerity inwardly, manifestation outwardly" (Cheng Yu Zhong Xing Yu Wai); if "sincere inwardly, manifest outwardly," one can reach the natural state of "subtle yet manifest"—without needing deliberate demonstration, virtue naturally flows from the heart.

This aligns perfectly with the argument of the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." Gui Shen do not need to "show off" (they are even unseen and unheard), but their "authenticity" (their real function of integrating with all things) naturally manifests between Heaven and Earth, compelling reverence. Likewise, the exemplary person does not need to deliberately boast of their virtue; as long as their inner heart is supremely sincere, their virtue will naturally manifest in an "inextinguishable" manner.