Chapter 1: Etymological Investigation of the Terms "Ghosts and Spirits"

Section 1: The Ancient Semantics of "Gui" and "Shen"

To understand the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" (Gui Shen Zhi De), one must first clarify the meaning of Gui Shen. In pre-Qin texts, the meanings of Gui (ghost) and Shen (spirit) are extremely broad and their usage complex. Without careful differentiation, later vulgar interpretations may intrude, causing us to miss the original intention of the pre-Qin thinkers.

The character Gui (鬼) already appears in oracle bone inscriptions. Although the Shuowen Jiezi is a later compilation, Xu Shen often relied on ancient pre-Qin traditions. It states: "Gui is where human spirits return to." This definition of "return" (gui) carries profound implications. The Book of Rites: Meaning of Sacrifices (Liji: Jiyi) states: "All living things must die; when they die, they must return to the earth; this is what is called Gui." The Erya: Shi Xun also contains this meaning. The original meaning of Gui referred to the return place of the jing (essence/spirit) after death. Zichan's discussion on ghosts and spirits in the Zuo Zhuan: Zhao Gong Seventh Year is extremely concise:

"When a person begins to materialize, it is called Po (魄, the corporeal soul); after Po is generated, the Yang aspect is called Hun (魂, the spiritual soul). When one makes extensive use of essence (jing), the Hun and Po become strong. Thus, there is refined essence (Jing Shuang) that reaches the spiritual brightness (Shen Ming). When a common man or woman dies violently, their Hun and Po can still attach themselves to people, becoming perverse and fierce."

Zichan's discourse is one of the most important documents concerning the concept of Gui Shen in the Spring and Autumn period. By explaining Gui Shen through Hun and Po, and differentiating Po and Hun based on Yin-Yang, it is clear that in the Spring and Autumn period, the original meaning of Gui was related to the transformation of human essence (Jing). When a person dies, the Yin aspect sinks downward, called Gui; the Yang aspect rises upward, called Shen. This ebb and flow of Yin-Yang essence constitutes the basic meaning of Gui Shen.

The character Shen (神) is even more complex. Oracle bones show early forms of Di (God) and nascent forms of Shen. In high antiquity, Shen was broadly categorized into three types: celestial spirits (Tianshen), terrestrial deities (Di Shi), and human ghosts (Rengui). The Rites of Zhou: Spring Official: Grand Astrologer (Zhouli: Chunguan: Dazongbo) states:

"The duty of the Grand Astrologer is to manage the rites of the celestial spirits (Tianshen), human ghosts (Rengui), and terrestrial deities (Di Shi) of the state."

It further states:

"With the Solemn Sacrifice (Xian Si), one sacrifices to the August Heaven Above (Hao Tian Shang Di); with the Fire Offering (Shi Chai), one sacrifices to the Sun, Moon, and Stars; with the Firing Offering (Yuan Liao), one sacrifices to the Central Spirit (Si Zhong), the Spirit of Destiny (Si Ming), the Master of Wind (Feng Shi), and the Master of Rain (Yu Shi). With the Blood Sacrifice (Xie Ji), one sacrifices to the Altars of Soil and Grain (She Ji) and the Five Deities of the Crossroads (Wu Si), the Five Sacred Mountains (Wu Yue); with the Rinsing Sacrifice (Li Shen), one sacrifices to the spirits of mountains, forests, rivers, and lakes; with the Poignant Offering (Yan Gu), one sacrifices to the spirits of the Four Quarters and all creatures. With the Final Offering (Si Xian Lu), one presents libations to the former kings; with the Feeding Offering (Kui Shi), one offers food to the former kings; with the Spring Sacrifice (Ci Chun), one offers to the former kings."

These three categories have distinct rites: celestial spirits receive Xian Si, terrestrial deities receive blood sacrifices, and human ghosts receive the final offerings (Si Xian Lu and Kui Shi). Yet, they are all collectively named Gui Shen.

Returning to the Zhongyong's "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits," what exactly do these Gui Shen refer to$2 Are they the souls after death$3 The deities of Heaven and Earth$4 Or the coming and going of Yin-Yang essence$5 This is crucial for interpreting the chapter.

Section 2: Divergent Views on "Ghosts and Spirits" Among Pre-Qin Schools

The various pre-Qin schools held different primary views on Gui Shen.

Confucius's Stance:

"He who is devoted to the people's righteousness and respects ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance, one can call knowledgeable." (Analects, Yong Ye)

"The Master rarely spoke of strange occurrences, feats of strength, rebellion, or spiritual beings." (Analects, Shu Er)

When asked by Jilu about serving ghosts and spirits, the Master said: "If you are not yet able to serve men, how can you serve ghosts and spirits$6" Jilu asked about death. The Master replied: "If you do not yet understand life, how can you understand death$7" (Analects, Xian Jin)

"When attending a sacrifice, act as if the spirit is present; when sacrificing to spirits, act as if they are present. The Master said: 'If I do not participate in the sacrifice, it is as if I did not sacrifice.'" (Analects, Ba Yi)

From these passages, we see several characteristics of Confucius's view: First, he did not deny the existence of Gui Shen, but treated them with "respect" (Jing). Second, he rarely discussed their matters—what he "rarely spoke of" (Zi bu yu) was not a denial of their existence, but rather that their affairs were not the core of his moral instruction. Third, he emphasized the attitude of sincerity, "as if present" (Ji Ru Zai), making subjective sincerity the substance of sacrifice. Fourth, he connected spiritual matters with human affairs, never discussing them in isolation from human conduct.

This attitude forms the basis for the Zhongyong's chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." The Zhongyong does not debate their existence but reveals their function as "Virtue" (De). What is De$8 It means "gain" or "efficacy." "The virtue of ghosts and spirits" refers to the efficacy, the functional operation, or the moral meaning manifested by ghosts and spirits. This is a further development of Confucius's spirit of "as if present."

Mozi's Stance:

Mozi strongly advocated for "Clarity on Ghosts" (Ming Gui). In the Mozi: Clarity on Ghosts (Part 2):

"The sage kings of antiquity certainly relied on ghosts and spirits in their governance; their dedication to ghosts and spirits was profound. Fearing that later descendants might not understand, they inscribed it on bamboo and silk, passing it on to future generations. Fearing that it might rot away and be lost, they carved it on vessels and inscribed it on metal and stone to give it weight."

Mozi's argument centers on clarifying the "Will of Heaven" (Tian Zhi). Ghosts and spirits have the ability to reward the good and punish the tyrannical—this is the core of Mozi's "Clarity on Ghosts." He cited historical examples, such as Du Bo shooting King Xuan of Zhou, to prove that spirits could retaliate. This contrasts sharply with the aims of Confucian discussion on Gui Shen.

Laozi's Stance:

"When the Dao governs the world, its ghosts do not cause uncanny effects (Shen). It is not that their ghosts do not have spiritual power, but that their power does not harm people. It is not that their power does not harm people, but that the sage does not harm people either. Since neither harms the other, their virtues mutually converge." (Laozi, Chapter 60)

Laozi incorporates ghosts and spirits under the dominion of the Dao. When the world is governed by the Dao, ghosts and spirits remain in their proper places and do not interfere. The Shen in "do not cause uncanny effects" (Bu Shen) means miraculous or strange phenomena, not a denial of their existence; rather, it means that under the Dao's embrace, ghosts and spirits do not cause harm through monstrosity. This resonates subtly with the Zhongyong's discussion of Gui Shen in terms of De.

Zhuangzi's Stance:

Zhuangzi describes the realm of the "True Person" (Zhenren) by saying: "The True People of antiquity did not oppose scarcity, nor did they press for success, nor did they deliberate on strategy... When they slept, they did not dream; when they awoke, they had no worries." He also states: "Death and life are decreed; they are like the constant cycle of night and day—this is Heaven." Zhuangzi rarely discusses the existence of Gui Shen; instead, he sees life and death as the coalescence and dispersal of Qi (vital energy). Zhuangzi, Zhi Bei You states:

"Human life is the coalescence of Qi. When coalesced, it is life; when dispersed, it is death. If death and life are merely transformations, what is there to fear! Thus, the ten thousand things are one."

This theory of Qi coalescence and dispersal aligns with Zichan's theory of Hun and Po. The difference is that Zichan retained the specific terminology of Gui Shen, whereas Zhuangzi directly subsumed them under the unitary concept of Qi.

The Commentary on the I Ching (Yizhuan) Stance:

"Refined essence (Jing Qi) forms things; wandering spirit (You Hun) becomes change. Therefore, we know the dispositions of ghosts and spirits." (I Ching, Appendix III)

"That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit (Shen)." (I Ching, Appendix III)

These two lines are highly significant. "Refined essence forms things" means the myriad things are formed by the condensation of Yin-Yang essence. "Wandering spirit becomes change" refers to the dispersal and transformation of the Yang aspect (the Hun). The "dispositions of ghosts and spirits" do not refer to the coming and going of concrete entities, but to the ebb and flow of Yin-Yang essence—this is the actual reality (Qing Zhuang) of Gui Shen.

"That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit" (Shen). Here, Shen describes the marvel of Yin-Yang transformation, meaning something beyond intellectual measure. The Appendix III further states: "Spirit has no location, and the Yi has no form." Having no location means it cannot be fixed to a specific place; having no form means it cannot be grasped conceptually. This aligns perfectly with the Zhongyong's "We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them."

Furthermore, the Appendix IV states: "When Yin and Yang combine their virtue, rigidity and flexibility acquire form, thereby embodying the patterns of Heaven and Earth, and connecting with the virtue of the spiritual bright beings (Shen Ming Zhi De)." These four characters directly echo the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" (Gui Shen Zhi De) in the Zhongyong. Thus, the Zhongyong's discussion of Gui Shen emerges from the same intellectual system as the Yizhuan.

Synthesizing the views of the pre-Qin thinkers, the concept of Gui Shen had at least three layers of meaning:

First Layer: Personified spirits—the Celestial Lord, ancestors, and deities of mountains and rivers. This ancient faith is frequently seen in the Book of Odes and the Book of Documents.

Second Layer: Functional spirits—the ebb and flow of Yin-Yang essence. This is the rational interpretation offered by pre-Qin philosophers, held by Zichan, the Yizhuan, and Zhuangzi.

Third Layer: Existential/Boundary spirits—the subtle manifestation of the Dao-substance, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity. This is the unique contribution of the Zhongyong.

The Zhongyong's discourse on Gui Shen integrates all three layers, converging on the third. It does not deny the concrete spirits in sacrifice ("They cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices"), nor does it reject the interpretation based on the flow of Qi ("We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them; yet they integrate with all things and cannot be left out"), but ultimately reduces the meaning of Gui Shen to "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity"—a more fundamental metaphysical proposition.

Section 3: Why does the Zhongyong introduce the discussion of "Ghosts and Spirits"$9

We must now ask a crucial question: Since the Zhongyong is about the "Way of the Mean," why dedicate a chapter to ghosts and spirits$10 What is the relationship between the concept of Gui Shen and the Way of the Mean$11

The answer lies in the structure of the entire Zhongyong.

The text begins by stating, "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature (Xing)," referring to the inherent nature bestowed by the heavenly Dao. It then proceeds, "following this nature is what we call the Way (Dao)," the unfolding of that nature. Finally, "cultivating this Way is what we call education (Jiao)," referring to human effort.

However, the "Way" (Dao) is something that "cannot be left for a moment; if it could be left, it would not be the Dao." Although this Way is inseparable from daily human use, its substance is extremely subtle and remote, beyond the reach of eyes and ears. How can we prove the actual existence of this Way$12 How can we prove that "cannot be left for a moment" is not empty talk$13

The Zhongyong's strategy is to use ghosts and spirits as an example.

Ghosts and spirits are subtle: we look but do not see, listen but do not hear. Yet, they "integrate with all things and cannot be left out," causing all under Heaven to purify themselves and don solemn robes to receive sacrifices—this is their manifestation. From the subtle to the manifest, "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!" The Dao-substance is likewise. You cannot see it or hear it, but it is everywhere and always present, functioning within all things and admitting no omission.

Therefore, the core logical argument of the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" chapter is:

By means of the "subtle yet manifest" nature of Gui Shen, it analogizes and proves the "subtle yet manifest" nature of the Dao-substance, thereby leading to the proposition that "authenticity cannot be concealed."

This is why the Zhongyong discusses Gui Shen. It is not engaging in theology or religious studies, but offering a metaphysical argument. Ghosts and spirits serve merely as an illustration, a passage, a bridge, through which the Zhongyong guides the reader toward the ontology of "Authenticity" (Cheng).

This argumentative strategy is not unique in pre-Qin thought. The Yizhuan also uses Gui Shen as an entry point for understanding the Dao of Yin-Yang. The Yizhuan states that "Refined essence forms things, wandering spirit becomes change, therefore we know the dispositions of ghosts and spirits," and then, "If one is similar to Heaven and Earth, one does not deviate. If one understands the totality of the myriad things and thus assists the world with the Dao, one does not transgress. If one travels widely without drifting, delights in Heaven and knows one's fate, one is free from worry. If one settles firmly in benevolence and is sincere, one can love." Its discussion of Gui Shen serves to manifest the Dao of Heaven and Earth.