Chapter 2: "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits! How Abundant It Is!"—A Line-by-Line Exegesis

Section 1: "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits! How Abundant It Is!"

The key to this opening line lies in the word De (Virtue).

The character De has rich meanings in pre-Qin texts. Its original meaning is "to gain" (De). The Guanzi: Heart Methods (Part 1) states: "De is gain. What is gain is what is obtained as such." It also states: "That which is void, subtle, and without form is called the Dao; that which nurtures and transforms the myriad things is called De." Here, Dao and De are juxtaposed: Dao is the substance, De is the function.

The I Ching, Appendix III states: "Making benevolence manifest, storing it in function, stirring the myriad things without sharing the sage's worry—this is the utmost of great virtue and great accomplishment!" It also states: "Abundance of possessions is called great accomplishment; daily renewal is called abundant virtue (Sheng De)."

The Sheng (Abundant) in Sheng De does not mean quantity, but rather fullness, perfection, and immense magnitude. "The virtue of ghosts and spirits! How abundant it is!"—the function, efficacy, and virtue manifested by Gui Shen are so grand and full!

Why is it called "abundant"$14 Because the characteristics described next—looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard, integrating with all things without omission—demonstrate that the virtue of Gui Shen is omnipresent and all-encompassing; its function is maximal. Precisely because they are unseen and unheard, yet everywhere, they are "abundant." If they were concrete objects that could be seen or heard, they would be limited, not abundant.

This meaning closely aligns with Laozi, Chapter 41:

"The Great Square has no corners. The Great Vessel is completed late. The Great Sound is seldom heard. The Great Image has no form. The Dao is hidden and nameless. It is only the Dao that is good at assisting and completing."

The Great Square without corners means the greatest square has no sharp edges. The Great Sound seldom heard means the greatest sound is inaudible. The Great Image has no form means the greatest image lacks shape. The Dao described by Laozi possesses the characteristic of "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard." And "good at assisting and completing" is precisely the meaning of "integrates with all things and cannot be left out."

Thus, the virtue of Gui Shen is "abundant" precisely because it is formless, soundless, yet everywhere. This is an infinite efficacy transcending finite existence.

Section 2: "We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them"

"We look for them and do not see them" (Shi zhi er bu jian); "we listen for them and do not hear them" (Ting zhi er bu wen).

These two phrases state that the virtue of Gui Shen is beyond the reach of the sensory organs.

In pre-Qin texts, "not seen" and "not heard" are often used to describe the ultimate Dao or the most subtle principle.

Laozi, Chapter 14, states:

"Looked at and not seen is called Yi. Listened to and not heard is called Xi. Grasped at and not obtained is called Wei. These three cannot be inquired into further, so they are combined into one. Above, it is not bright; below, it is not dark. It continues endlessly and cannot be named, returning to nothingness. This is called the formless form, the image of nothingness—this is called Obscure. Greet it and its head cannot be seen; follow it and its tail cannot be found."

The "not seen" (Bu jian) and "not heard" (Bu wen) of the Zhongyong are almost identical to those in Laozi. What does this show$15

It shows that both Confucian and Daoist schools shared the same linguistic framework and conceptual structure when describing the "Dao-substance" or the "most subtle fundamental principle." Both believed that ultimate reality transcends sensory experience—it cannot be seen, heard, or touched. However, this does not mean it does not exist—on the contrary, it exists in a more fundamental way.

Yet, while sharing this description, the aims of Confucianism and Daoism differ. Laozi's "not seen" and "not heard" point to the void-like and elusive nature of the Dao as a substance. The Zhongyong's "not seen" and "not heard" point to the subtle magnificence of the "Authentic" substance as it integrates with things. Laozi understands incomparability through the lens of "Nothingness" (Wu), whereas the Zhongyong understands it through the lens of "Authenticity" (Cheng).

Why "not seen" and "not heard"$16 Because Gui Shen (or the Dao-substance, or the Authentic substance) is not a concrete "thing." Anything that can be seen must have a form and color; anything that can be heard must have a sound and resonance. Having form, color, sound, or resonance means it must be finite—if it has this form, it lacks that form; if it has this sound, it lacks that sound. But the virtue of Gui Shen pervades all things without exception. If it could be seen or heard, it would become one thing among the myriad things, thus limited, and no longer "abundant."

The I Ching, Appendix III offers an excellent exposition of this idea:

"One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao; what follows it is good (Shan); what completes it is nature (Xing). The benevolent see it and call it benevolence; the wise see it and call it wisdom. The common people use it daily yet do not know it, hence the Way of the exemplary person is rare."

"The common people use it daily yet do not know it"—this is another way of expressing "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard." People use it every day without knowing because the Dao has no form or sound, and though omnipresent, it does not present itself as any specific object.

The Appendix III also states: "Spirit has no location, and the Yi has no form." Spirit has no fixed location, and the Yi has no fixed form. This "no location" and "no form" is precisely the reason for "not seen" and "not heard."

Section 3: "Yet they integrate with all things and cannot be left out"

This line is critical, serving as the pivot of the entire chapter.

The phrase "integrate with all things" (Ti Wu) requires careful distinction. Here, Ti is used as a verb, meaning "to embody in things," "to inhere within things," or "to take things as its body." Yi means omission or neglect. "Integrate with all things and cannot be left out" (Ti Wu Er Bu Ke Yi)—the virtue of Gui Shen inheres within every single thing, and not one thing is omitted.

Why emphasize "cannot be left out"$17

Because the previous lines stated "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard," which might lead the reader to ask: If it cannot be seen or heard, is it not ethereal and dispensable$18 "Integrate with all things and cannot be left out" is the response to this question—although it cannot be seen or heard, it is not nonexistent; it exists by "integrating with all things," without exception.

The logic here is exquisitely fine:

"Not seen" / "Not heard"—indicates that the virtue of Gui Shen cannot be directly apprehended by the senses (it is not an objectified existence).

"Integrate with all things and cannot be left out"—indicates that the virtue of Gui Shen is inherent in all things, omnipresent (it is not an existence separate from things).

Taken together: The virtue of Gui Shen is neither an object that can be seen and heard (if it were an object, it would be limited), nor is it a nothingness detached from things (if it were nothingness, it would be useless). It is "both transcendent and immanent," "both invisible and omnipresent"—this is the core insight of pre-Qin metaphysics regarding the Dao-substance.

This idea is widely echoed in pre-Qin texts.

Laozi, Chapter 34, states:

"The Great Dao is ubiquitous; it can be on the left or the right. The myriad things rely on it to live and do not refuse; when their task is done, they do not claim credit. It nourishes all things but does not act as master; it is always without desire, yet can be called small. The myriad things return to it but it does not act as master, so it can be called great. Because it never claims greatness for itself, it can achieve greatness."

"The myriad things rely on it to live and do not refuse," "It nourishes all things but does not act as master"—this is the meaning of "integrate with all things and cannot be left out." The Dao inheres in things, nurturing them, without existing in the form of any specific thing.

Zhuangzi, The Equality of Things states: "Where does the Dao hide that it has truth and falsehood$19 Where do words hide that they have right and wrong$20 Where does the Dao go that it does not exist$21 Where do words exist that they cannot be asserted$22" And further: "The Dao never began with boundaries, and words never possessed constant definitions."

"Where does the Dao go that it does not exist$23"—The implication is that the Dao exists everywhere. This is the best commentary on "integrate with all things and cannot be left out."

Zhuangzi, Zhi Bei You contains an excellent dialogue: Dongguo Zi asked Zhuangzi: "Where is this so-called Dao$24" Zhuangzi replied: "It is nowhere that it is not." Dongguo Zi said: "Tell me specifically, so that I can apprehend it." Zhuangzi replied: "It is in the ants." Dongguo Zi: "How low!" Zhuangzi: "It is in the weeds and millet." Dongguo Zi: "How much lower!" Zhuangzi: "It is in tiles and bricks." Dongguo Zi: "How much worse!" Zhuangzi: "It is in excrement and urine." Dongguo Zi could not reply. Zhuangzi said:

"Your question, sir, does not reach the substance. When Zheng Huo asked the market supervisor about the boar's fat, he said, 'The lower it is, the more substantial it seems.' You should realize there is no place where things escape the Dao. The ultimate Dao is like this; grand words are the same. Zhou (All), Bian (Pervasive), Xian (Complete)—these three names have the same reality; their intent is one."

"No place where things escape the Dao" (Wu hu tao wu)—the Dao does not escape any single thing, serving as the perfect footnote to "integrate with all things and cannot be left out." The ultimate Dao is present in ants, weeds, bricks, tiles, and even excrement and urine—the Dao exists in every single thing, regardless of its perceived nobility or baseness.

However, although Zhuangzi shares the concept of "no escape from things" with the Zhongyong's "cannot be left out," their ultimate aims differ. Zhuangzi's "no escape from things" aims to dissolve the distinctions between self and other, right and wrong, noble and base, culminating in the "Equality of Things" (Qi Wu). The Zhongyong's "cannot be left out" aims to manifest the omnipresence of the "Authentic" substance, culminating in "completion" (Cheng).

This subtle difference marks the boundary between Confucian and Daoist thought.

Section 4: "They cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices"

After discussing the subtlety and omnipresence of Gui Shen in the first three lines, this line suddenly shifts to human affairs—all under Heaven purify themselves, clarify their minds, and don solemn robes to receive sacrifices.

This sudden turn is highly significant.

Why shift from "not seen, not heard" to the matter of sacrifice$25

Because the Zhongyong's purpose in discussing Gui Shen is not to establish a doctrine of ghosts and spirits, but to explain "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity." Although the virtue of Gui Shen is imperceptible to sight and hearing, it is capable of eliciting deep awe in all under Heaven, prompting them to purify themselves and don solemn robes to receive sacrifices—this is the best evidence of "subtle made manifest."

Qi (齐) means Zhai (斋, purification/fasting). The Liji: Jì Tǒng states:

"When the time for sacrifice is approaching, the exemplary person undertakes purification (Qi). Purification means making the uneven even; it is causing the unevenness to reach an even state. Therefore, the exemplary person does not undertake purification unless there is a major matter or profound reverence. If one is not purified, one has no restraint towards things, and desires and lusts are unrestrained. When one is about to purify, one restrains evil influences, completely subdues desires and lusts; the ears do not listen to music, the heart does not wander in stray thoughts; one must depend upon the Dao."

"Qi bu qi yi zhi qi zhe ye"—to bring the uneven mind into unity, to cause it to converge in one place. This Qi refers not only to external cleansing but to the unification of the inner mind and will.

Ming (明, clear) means clarity and purity, referring to the mind being clear and untainted by evil filth during the period of purification.

Sheng Fu (盛服, solemn robes) refers to wearing the most respectful attire. The Liji: Jiyi states: "On the day of purification, one reflects on where the departed dwelled, reflects on their laughter and speech, reflects on their intentions and thoughts, reflects on what they enjoyed. After purifying for three days, one truly sees what they purified themselves for." It further states: "On the day of sacrifice, entering the ancestral hall, one senses that they are in their seat. Walking around outside the door, one solemnly hears the sound of their sighs. Listening outside the door, one clearly hears the sound of their sighs."

This practice of purification (Zhai Jie) is precisely the effort to transform the scattered mind of daily life into a state of unified reverence. In this state, the sacrificer seems to truly sense the presence of the Gui Shen. This is the meaning of "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them" mentioned below.

The word Cheng (承, receive/bear) in "to receive the ancestral sacrifices" also carries deep meaning. Cheng means to bear or to respectfully receive. It does not mean man seeks out Gui Shen, but rather that man, with a sincere and reverent heart, receives the descent of the Gui Shen's virtue. This word implies an important relationship: the virtue of Gui Shen actively "integrates with things," while man's response is "reception"—opening oneself with a sincere heart to receive the descent of this subtle virtue.

Why would all under Heaven purify themselves and wear solemn robes to receive sacrifices$26 Why would people feel such deep awe toward Gui Shen that are unseen and unheard$27 This is precisely the power of the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity." Although the virtue of Gui Shen is imperceptible, its "authenticity"—its true, non-artificial fundamental reality—cannot be concealed. It evokes a response deep within the human heart, compelling reverence, awe, and the most pious attitude toward it.

We can reference the words from the Book of Documents: Great Plan of Yu (Shangshu: Da Yu Mo) for comparison:

"The Emperor said: 'Come, Yu! When the floods came, you warned me; you achieved success through sincere effort. Diligent in governance, frugal in the household, not arrogant or boastful—only you are worthy. Because you are not self-satisfied, no one under Heaven vies with you in ability; because you do not boast, no one vies with you in merit. I commend your virtue and praise your great achievements. Heaven's mandate is in your person; you shall ultimately ascend to the highest throne. The hearts of men are precarious; the heart of the Dao is subtle. Be refined and unified; firmly grasp the Mean.'"

"The heart of the Dao is subtle" (Dao Xin Wei Wei)—the heart of the Dao is extremely subtle. But precisely because it is "refined and unified" (Wei Jing Wei Yi), if one perceives it with the utmost sincere and unified heart, one can "firmly grasp the Mean" (Yun Zhi Zhong). This corresponds perfectly to the Zhongyong's discussion: although the virtue of Gui Shen is subtle, when perceived by a sincere heart, it naturally manifests.

The Book of Documents: Jin Teng records Duke Zhou's prayer on behalf of King Wu:

"Duke Zhou stood upon the altar terrace, holding a jade disk and a jade tablet, and addressed the Great King, King Ji, and King Wen."

Duke Zhou faced deceased ancestors—Great King, King Ji, and King Wen. These three are unseen and unheard. Yet, Duke Zhou prayed with utmost sincerity, offering his own body to take on King Wu's illness. The result was that King Wu recovered shortly after. Regardless of the historical veracity of this event, its recording and transmission in pre-Qin literature demonstrate the deep conviction that the utmost sincerity could resonate with Gui Shen.

Section 5: "Overflowing as if above them, as if beside them"

"Yang Yang (洋洋乎)" describes the appearance of flowing and being full. The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Wen Wang states: "King Wen is above, clearly visible in Heaven. Though Zhou is an old state, its mandate is renewed. If Zhou were not manifest, Heaven's mandate would not endure. When King Wen ascended and descended, he was beside the Lord on High."

This line, "When King Wen ascended and descended, he was beside the Lord on High," can be compared with "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them." Although the spirit of King Wen is imperceptible, when the people of Zhou sincerely sacrificed to him, they felt overflowingly as if he were above them and beside them—this is the manifestation of Gui Shen being "as if present."

Note the use of the word "Ru" (如, as if). "As if above them, as if beside them"—it is "as if present," not "actually present." This particle "Ru" precisely echoes the earlier "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard": you truly cannot see or hear them, but after sincere purification, you experience a strong sense of their "as if presence."

Where does this sense of "as if presence" come from$28

It does not come from external sensory stimuli (because they are "not seen," "not heard"), nor does it come from rational inference. It comes from "Authenticity" (Cheng)—from the convergence of the sacrificer's ultimate sincerity and the subtle virtue of Gui Shen.

Confucius's saying in the Analects, Ba Yi: "When attending a sacrifice, act as if the spirit is present; when sacrificing to spirits, act as if they are present"—this is the meaning. "As if present" does not mean "not present," nor does it mean "certainly present"; rather, it is a unique experience that transcends the binary opposition of "present" and "absent." In the state of utmost sincerity, the distinction between "present" and "absent" dissolves, leaving only a unified state filled with awe and resonance.

This state has deep roots in the pre-Qin sacrificial tradition. The Liji: Jiyi states:

"When King Wen sacrificed, he served the dead as if they were living, and thought of the dead as if he did not wish to live. On the anniversary of their death, he mourned with grief, and referred to their names as if seeing them in person. In the utmost loyalty of sacrifice, it was as if seeing what the departed cherished, and having the expression one assumes when seeing a beloved relative. Is this not King Wen$29 The Book of Odes says: 'At dawn I cannot sleep, thinking of two people.' This is King Wen's poem. The day after the sacrifice, unable to sleep at dawn, one feasts and brings it to completion, and then continues to think of them. On the day of sacrifice, joy and sorrow are half and half. Feasting must be joyful, and when completed, there must be sorrow; I see from this the character of King Wen."

"Serving the dead as if they were living"—treating the deceased as if they were alive. This use of "Ru" carries the same meaning as the "Ru" in "as if above them, as if beside them." When King Wen sacrificed to his ancestors, he fully immersed himself with sincerity, causing the boundary between presence and absence to dissolve, and the barrier between death and life to be broken through.

This experience is not superstition or hallucination; it is the ultimate manifestation of the function of "Authenticity" (Cheng). Precisely because the virtue of Gui Shen "integrates with all things and cannot be left out," and because human sincerity is sufficient to resonate with this subtle virtue, there arises the experience of "overflowing as if present."

Section 6: Citing the Odes: "The arrival of the spirits, how cannot it be fathomed! Much less can they be scorned!"

The Zhongyong cites the Book of Odes here as proof. This poem comes from the Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Yi (Da Ya: Yi), which is quite long and serves as a self-admonition by Duke Wu of Wei. One section reads:

"The arrival of the spirits (Shen Zhi Ge Si), how cannot it be fathomed (Bu Ke Du Si)! Much less can they be scorned (Shen Ke She Si)!"

Ge (格) means arrival or coming. Si (思) is an exclamatory particle, like Zhi or Xi. Du (度) means to estimate or fathom. Shen (矧) means moreover or much less. She (射) means disgust or scornful negligence (also interpreted as Yi, meaning weariness or disrespect).

The entire line means: The descent of the spirits cannot be fathomed! Much less can one be scornful or disrespectful!

The Zhongyong quotes this ode to emphasize that the Gui Shen are "unfathomable" and "not to be slighted." You cannot predict when or how the spirits will descend—this is the "subtle" aspect. But precisely because they are unfathomable, one must maintain reverence and sincerity without the slightest neglect—this is the appropriate response to the "subtle."

The primary theme of the Ode: Yi is Duke Wu's cautious self-admonition. The opening stanza states:

"Solemn is the bearing and demeanor, which marks the corner of virtue. Men also say: No wise man is not foolish. The foolishness of the common man is due to ignorance. The foolishness of the wise man is due to such perversity."

This speaks of self-reflection. If the wise man does not remain vigilant, he too will fall into foolishness. Thus, one must be constantly cautious. The ode continues:

"Look at your friends, the exemplary men; be gentle in your countenance, and you will not err afar. When seen in your room, you should not feel ashamed even before the dark corner. Do not say, 'It is not manifest, no one sees me.' The arrival of the spirits, how cannot it be fathomed! Much less can they be scorned!"

"When seen in your room, you should not feel ashamed even before the dark corner" (Wu kui yu wu lou)—even when alone in a hidden chamber, one should not feel ashamed in one's heart. "Do not say, 'It is not manifest, no one sees me.'" Immediately following this is the quote: "The arrival of the spirits cannot be fathomed, much less can they be scorned!"—because the descent of the spirits is unpredictable, you never know when it will come!

This meaning is profound. The Zhongyong's opening chapter states: "Nothing is more visible than what is hidden, nothing is more manifest than what is subtle; therefore, the exemplary person is cautious when alone" (Shen Qi Du). In the most hidden places, in the most unwitnessed moments, the goodness and badness, the sincerity and falsehood of the heart are most exposed. The descent of Gui Shen is "unfathomable" (Bu Ke Du)—you cannot anticipate when it will come—therefore, you must always maintain reverence and always maintain sincerity. This is the deeper foundation for the discipline of "caution when alone."

Thus, the Zhongyong's citation of this ode is not just about the unpredictability of Gui Shen, but also provides a metaphysical basis for the discipline of "caution when alone." Gui Shen "integrate with all things and cannot be left out" and are "unfathomable"—this is the metaphysical root of "Nothing is more visible than what is hidden, nothing is more manifest than what is subtle."

Section 7: "Indeed, the subtle and the manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!"

This final line summarizes the entire chapter: the three characters "subtle yet manifest" (Wei zhi Xian) encapsulate the chapter's argumentative logic; the five characters "inextinguishable nature of authenticity" (Cheng zhi Bu Ke Yan) clarify the chapter's ultimate thesis.

"Subtle yet manifest"—from the subtle to the clear. The virtue of Gui Shen, its substance is extremely subtle (unseen, unheard), yet its function is extremely manifest (integrates with all things, causes all under Heaven to purify themselves, overflowing as if present). This "subtle" and "manifest" are not opposing ends, but two faces of one substance. Precisely because it is "subtle" (formless, soundless, omnipresent), it is "manifest" (integrates with all things, functioning everywhere without omission).

This logical pattern of "subtle yet manifest" repeatedly appears in pre-Qin texts.

The I Ching, Appendix IV states: "Subtlety (Ji) is the slight movement, the first sign of fortune and misfortune. The exemplary person acts upon subtlety, not waiting for the whole day." This character Ji is a specific manifestation of "subtle yet manifest"—the initial sign of change is extremely subtle, yet those who observe well can foresee the major trend of fortune and misfortune from it.

Laozi, Chapter 64, states: "What is about to be grasped, must first be extended; what is about to be weakened, must first be strengthened; what is about to be ruined, must first be promoted; what is about to be taken, must first be given. This is subtle clarity (Wei Ming)."

Wei Ming (subtle clarity)—these two words are exquisite. "Subtle" is one of its characteristics. Yet the practitioner of the subtle Dao is "deep and unknowable," yet their actions manifest in appearance and conduct—this is the "manifest." The subtle Dao manifests through appearance and conduct; this is "subtle yet manifest."

The Great Learning (Da Xue) states: "To make one's intentions sincere, one must not deceive oneself... This is called being sincere inwardly and manifest outwardly (Cheng Yu Zhong, Xing Yu Wai); therefore, the exemplary person must be cautious when alone." This "sincere inwardly, manifest outwardly" is the expression of "subtle yet manifest" on the level of moral cultivation. The sincerity or falsehood of the heart (subtle) will inevitably manifest in external words and deeds (manifest). The petty person thinks that "when dwelling alone, they do evil with no restraint," believing no one knows—this is failing to understand "subtle yet manifest." Yet, "when others look at one, it is as if seeing one's lungs and liver"—the inner good and evil cannot be concealed.

Furthermore, the Da Xue quotes the Book of Odes: "Gazing at the banks of the Qi, the bamboo grows lushly. There is a refined gentleman, as if cut and filed, as if carved and polished." It also quotes Zengzi: "The eyes of ten people are watching, the fingers of ten people are pointing—how solemn!" Even when alone and unwitnessed, it is as if ten pairs of eyes are watching and ten fingers are pointing. This is the "subtle yet manifest"—the moral pressure generated by the realization that the most hidden place is precisely the most manifest.