Chapter 3: The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits and Pre-Qin Sacrificial Tradition

Section 1: The Original Meaning of High Antiquity Sacrifice

To deeply understand the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits," one must examine the pre-Qin sacrificial tradition, as the argument in this chapter is based upon the experience of sacrifice.

Ancient sacrifice was not merely a product of superstition but held profound cultural significance.

The Liji: Jì Tǒng states:

"In governing people, nothing is more urgent than rites. Rites have five constants, none more important than sacrifice. Sacrifice is not something that comes from outside to within; it arises from the heart within. When the heart is awestruck and applies rites to it, only the worthy can fully exhaust the meaning of sacrifice."

"Not something that comes from outside to within; it arises from the heart within"—sacrifice is not external spirits seeking men out, but sincere reverence arising from the heart. "When the heart is awestruck and applies rites to it"—when the heart is moved, it is then expressed through the form of rites. This is the original meaning of sacrifice.

It further states:

"Sacrifice is not something that comes from outside to within; it arises from the heart within. When the heart is awestruck and applies rites to it, only the worthy can fully exhaust the meaning of sacrifice. When the worthy sacrifice, they must receive their fortune (Fu). This is not the fortune spoken of in this world. Fortune means completeness (Bei). Completeness is the name for a hundred fulfillments; he who has nothing unfulfilled is called complete. This means that within, one fulfills oneself, and without, one conforms to the Dao. A loyal minister serves his ruler; a filial son serves his parents; the foundation is the same."

The fortune (Fu) sought through sacrifice is not worldly fortune but "completeness" (Bei)—"a hundred fulfillments," meaning nothing is unfulfilled. "Within, one fulfills oneself, and without, one conforms to the Dao"—one fulfills one's inner sincerity and reverence, and externally conforms to the Great Dao. This is the function of "Authenticity" (Cheng).

Furthermore, the Liji: Jiyi states:

"The nature of sacrifice is great! Its arising brings completeness to things! Is it the foundation of teaching that follows order and completeness$30 Therefore, the teaching of the exemplary person teaches externally to respect their ruler and elders, and internally to be filial to their parents. Therefore, when a wise ruler is in charge, his ministers obey. When the ancestral temples and altars are revered, the descendants are filial and obedient. When one exhausts the Dao and establishes righteousness, teaching is born thereby."

The function of sacrifice is "teaching" (Jiao). Through sacrifice, people learn to respect rulers, serve parents, and practice filial piety. Sacrifice is not only an offering to Gui Shen but also the fundamental means of cultural education.

The Discourses of the States: Chu Language (Part 2) records an extremely important dialogue where King Zhao of Chu asks Guan Shefu about the "Severing of Earth and Heaven" (Jue Di Tian Tong):

"King Zhao asked Guan Shefu: 'What does the Book of Zhou mean by Chong and Li causing Heaven and Earth to become disconnected$31 If this were so, would men be able to ascend to Heaven$32'"

He replied: "This is not what is meant. In antiquity, the people and spirits did not intermingle. When the essence and spirit of the people were unswerving and unified, and they were able to be pure, solemn, upright, and sincere (Qi Su Zhong Zheng), their intelligence could reach up to Heaven and down to Earth with righteousness; their sagacity could illuminate afar; their clarity could shine upon all things; their hearing could penetrate thoroughly—in such a case, the bright spirits would descend upon them. For men, they were called Xian (shaman); for women, they were called Wu (shamaness). They were commanded to establish the positions and masters for the spirits, and prepare the sacrificial animals, vessels, and robes; and then they commanded the descendants of the former sages who possessed brilliance and achievement, who knew the names of mountains and rivers, the masters of the ancestral sacrifices, the affairs of the ancestral temples, the generations of the ancestral line, the diligence of purity and reverence, the propriety of rites and decorum, the dignity of demeanor, and the substance of loyalty and trustworthiness—these people were made the invocators (Zhu). And those whose lineage allowed them to know the growth of the four seasons, the materials for the sacrificial animals, the types of jade and silk, the colors and attire, the measures of the ritual vessels, the order of the sacrifices, the positions of the tablets, the places of the altars, the spirits above and below, and the lineage of the clans, and who followed the ancient precedents in their hearts—these were made the patriarchs (Zong). Thus, there were offices for the categories of people, spirits, and things that connected Heaven, Earth, people, and spirits—these were the Five Offices, each managing its own order without transgression. Thus, the people possessed loyalty and trustworthiness, and the spirits possessed bright virtue; the people and spirits had separate duties, revered each other without profanation. Therefore, the spirits sent down auspicious births, and the people offered their things in sacrifice; disasters did not strike, and the means of supplication were never exhausted."

"When the decline of Shao Hao came, the Jiu Li corrupted virtue, and the people and spirits intermingled, confusing the categories. People began making offerings in their own houses, with each family acting as its own shaman or scribe, without any clear standard. The people became deficient in sacrifice, and did not know their blessings. Offerings were without measure, and people and spirits shared the same status. The people profaned their solemn vows, without solemnity or awe. Spirits became intimate with the people, failing to maintain their proper sphere. Auspicious births did not descend, there was nothing to offer, and disasters came in succession, exhausting all the vital energy. Zhuanxu received this mandate and ordered Chong, the Southern Marshal, to manage Heaven and connect it to the spirits, and ordered Li, the Fire Marshal, to manage Earth and connect it to the people. He commanded them to restore the old order, and not allow transgression or profanation. This is what is meant by 'Severing of Earth and Heaven.'"

This passage, though lengthy, is highly significant. Its core point is: In antiquity, the proper relationship between people and spirits required the people to possess "unwavering essence and spirit" (Jing Shuang Bu Xie Yi) and "purity, solemnity, uprightness, and sincerity" (Qi Su Zhong Zheng)—all manifestations of "Authenticity" (Cheng). When people lost sincerity, the separation between people and spirits became blurred ("people and spirits intermingled"), leading to disorder in sacrifice and disaster.

This directly corresponds to the Zhongyong's point: "They cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices." This purification (Zhai Jie) is the means of maintaining the proper relationship between Heaven and man. Its essence is "Authenticity" (Cheng).

Section 2: Evolution of Sacrificial Rites in the Three Dynasties

The evolution of pre-Qin sacrifices, from high antiquity through the Three Dynasties, involved profound changes.

Xia Dynasty Sacrifice:

Confucius commented on the Three Dynasties in the Analects, Ba Yi: "I can speak of the rites of Xia, but the descendants of Qi are insufficient to attest to them; I can speak of the rites of Yin, but the descendants of Song are insufficient to attest to them. If the documents were sufficient, I could attest to them."

The Liji: Biao Ji records Confucius discussing the teachings of the Three Dynasties:

"The Master said: 'The Way of Xia prized mandate; they served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance, drew close to men and were loyal. Their rewards were straightforward, their punishments measured. They honored first the emoluments, then the authority; they rewarded first, then punished. They were intimate yet not familiar; the deterioration of their people was sluggishness and stupidity, arrogance and rudeness, simplicity without cultivation.'"

The Xia people "served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance"—this attitude of "respecting yet keeping distant" aligns with Confucius's own view. The Xia drew close to men and were loyal, centering on human affairs, respecting Gui Shen but without excess.

Yin Shang Sacrifice:

The Biao Ji continues:

"The people of Yin prized the spirits; they led the people in serving them, prioritizing ghosts over rites, and punishments over rewards. They were revered yet not intimate; the deterioration of their people was recklessness and restlessness, aggression without shame."

The Yin people "prized the spirits" and "led the people in serving them"—the central position of Gui Shen sacrifice in Shang culture is evidenced by the oracle bones. The Shang performed divination for almost everything and constantly consulted the spirits. The frequency and grandeur of their sacrifices far exceeded those of the Xia. However, the flaw was that the people became "reckless and restless"—over-reliance on spirits made the populace unstable.

Zhou Dynasty Sacrifice:

The Biao Ji concludes:

"The people of Zhou prized rites and valued contributions; they served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance, drew close to men and were loyal. Their rewards and punishments were based on rank. They were intimate yet not familiar; the deterioration of their people was profit-seeking and craftiness, elegance without shame, villainy veiled by appearance."

The Zhou "prized rites and valued contributions"—rites were central. "They served ghosts and spirits while keeping them at a distance"—this point is similar to the Xia. The Zhou characteristic was "prizing rites"—integrating Gui Shen sacrifice into the framework of ritual, standardizing and institutionalizing it.

From the evolution across the three dynasties, a clear trajectory emerges: the attitude toward Gui Shen shifted from "respecting yet keeping distant" (Xia), to "prizing spirits and leading the people to serve them" (Yin), and finally returning to "respecting yet keeping distant" while using "rites" for regulation (Zhou). The Zhou's "respecting Gui Shen while keeping them distant" was not disbelief; it was integrating spirit sacrifice into the structure of humane education.

The Zhongyong inherits the tradition of the Zhou rites, further deepening this view. It does not deny the reality of Gui Shen ("integrate with all things and cannot be left out," "overflowing as if present"), but grounds the meaning of Gui Shen in "Authenticity" (Cheng)—a more fundamental metaphysical principle.

Section 3: Why Can "Authenticity" Resonate with Ghosts and Spirits$33

We must now ask a core question: Why can "Authenticity" resonate with Gui Shen$34

In pre-Qin texts, a recurring concept holds that ultimate sincerity can resonate with Heaven, Earth, and the spirits.

The Shangshu: Jin Teng records the famous incident where Duke Zhou prayed to the former kings with utmost sincerity, offering his own body for King Wu's illness. "When the Duke returned, he placed the inscribed document in the bamboo casket. The next day, the King recovered."

The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Zhuang Thirty-second Year records Gong Ziqi advising Duke Yu of Yu:

"I have heard that ghosts and spirits do not naturally associate with men; they rely solely on virtue (De). Thus, the Book of Zhou says: 'Heaven is impartial; it assists only virtue.' It also says: 'Millet and sacrificial grains are not fragrant; bright virtue is fragrant.' It also says: 'The people do not change things; they rely on virtue to transform things.' If this is so, then without virtue, the people are not harmonious, and the spirits do not partake. The place where spirits rely on is virtue. If the Jin takes Yu, and offers up bright virtue as fragrant incense, will the spirits spit it out$1"

This passage is crucial. Gong Ziqi explicitly states: "Gui Shen fei ren shi qin, wei De shi Yi"—Ghosts and spirits do not associate intimately with people; they rely solely on virtue. They do not favor any particular person but rather "rely on virtue." "Shu Ji Fei Xin, Ming De Wei Xin"—Millet and grain are not fragrant; bright virtue is the true fragrance. This means the spiritual efficacy of sacrifice is rooted not in the material offerings, but in the virtue of the sacrificer.

This idea has a wide influence in pre-Qin thought.

The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xiang Eleventh Year quotes Ji Wuzi:

"Ghosts and spirits are not of our lineage; they do not partake in our sacrifices."

While this speaks from the perspective of lineage law, the deeper implication is that there is a kinship of essence and virtue between Gui Shen and man, and only those with ultimate sincerity can achieve resonance.

Synthesizing the above materials, we can summarize the pre-Qin rationale for why "sincerity can resonate with Gui Shen":

First: The essence of Gui Shen is De (virtue, unfeigned reality), and human "Authenticity" (Cheng) is also unfeigned reality. Cheng and De are of the same substance, hence they can resonate. It is like tuning two strings of a lute: if they share the same frequency, sounding one causes the other to vibrate.

Second: Gui Shen "integrate with all things and cannot be left out," being omnipresent. Human sincere heart is also inherent in the deepest part of man. When man opens himself with ultimate sincerity, he naturally touches that omnipresent virtue of Gui Shen.

Third: From the perspective of Yin-Yang Qi transformation, Gui Shen are the ebb and flow of Yin-Yang Qi, and human life is also a condensation of Yin-Yang Qi. Ultimate human sincerity harmonizes one's own Yin-Yang and clears the flow of Qi, thus enabling resonance with the Yin-Yang of Heaven and Earth.

This third point finds clear theoretical support in the I Ching. The I Ching, Xian Gua, Tuan Zhuan states:

"Xian is resonance. Soft above and rigid below, the two Qi resonate and interact, stopping yet delighting. The male goes down to the female, thus it is favorable for perseverance; taking a wife is auspicious. Heaven and Earth resonate, and the myriad things are transformed and born. The sage resonates with the hearts of men, and the world achieves peace. Observe what resonates, and the nature of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things can be known."

"The two Qi resonate and interact"—the mutual resonance of Yin and Yang is the essence of Xian (Resonance). By extension, all connections between Heaven, Earth, and things are based on "resonance." Heaven and Earth resonate, and the myriad things are transformed and born; the sage resonates with human hearts, and the world achieves peace. The resonance between the virtue of Gui Shen and human sincerity is also a form of this "resonance."

Furthermore, the I Ching, Appendix III states: "The Yi has no thought, no deliberate action; it is still and motionless, yet responsive, it consequently permeates the world. If not for the ultimate spirit (Zhi Shen), who could share in this$2" "Still and motionless, yet responsive" (Jì Rán Bu Dong, Gan Er Sui Tong)—this perfectly describes the virtue of Gui Shen. The virtue of Gui Shen is itself "still and motionless" (unseen, unheard), but once there is "response" (ultimate human sincerity), it "consequently permeates the world"—all things change because of this resonance. This "ultimate spirit" (Zhi Shen) is the "Spirit" in the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits."