Part Two: That Which is Authentic Completes Itself—The Positive Unfolding of the Dao-Substance

Chapter 5: "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself, and the Dao Guides Itself"—The Self-Sufficiency of Authenticity and the Dao

Section 1: What is "Self-Completion" (Zi Cheng)$7

"That which is authentic completes itself" (Cheng zhe zi cheng ye)—this line clearly states the most fundamental characteristic of "Authenticity" (Cheng): Self-Completion.

The phrase "Self-Completion" carries profound meaning. Zi means self. Cheng means to complete or achieve. "Self-completion"—Authenticity achieves itself; it requires no external force to achieve it.

What does this mean$8

Let us return to the original meaning of Cheng. In pre-Qin texts, the basic meaning of Cheng is "truth" or "non-deception." The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Wen Eighteenth Year discusses oaths and betrayals, where the true fear in one's heart (Ji) is related to sincerity. The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xiang Second Year states: "A state that loses trust is bound to collapse." Trust (Xin) and authenticity (Cheng) are closely related in meaning.

Mencius, Li Lou (Part 1) states: "Authenticity (Cheng) is the Way of Heaven; striving for authenticity (Si Cheng) is the Way of man. There has never been one who was utterly sincere and yet unmoved; if one is not sincere, one cannot move others." This is one of the most crucial statements on Cheng in pre-Qin philosophy. Mencius clearly states: "Authenticity is the Way of Heaven"—it is the characteristic of the Heavenly Dao itself.

Why is the Way of Heaven "Authentic"$9 Because the operation of the Heavenly Dao—the movement of the sun and moon, the succession of the four seasons, the growth of all things—is all "real" (not illusory, not fabricated, not forced, not decorated). This characteristic of "true and non-artificial" (Zhen Shi Wu Wang) is "Authenticity."

The "self-completion" (Zi Cheng) in "That which is authentic completes itself" is a necessary conclusion drawn from the "true and non-artificial" nature of the Heavenly Dao. The operation of the Heavenly Dao is not propelled by some external force; it is naturally so, existing by itself. This is what Laozi meant by "the Dao follows the spontaneity of nature" (Dao Fa Zi Ran). Zi Ran does not mean the natural world, but "being so of itself."

Similarly, Cheng is called "Cheng" because it is inherently true and non-artificial, self-sufficient. Truth itself requires no external guarantee—truth is truth. Therefore, "Authenticity" must be "self-completing." If it required external force to be established, it would imply that it itself was insufficient or lacking—but the meaning of Cheng lies precisely in being "true and non-artificial" and "full and complete."

This meaning deeply resonates with the spirit of the Qian (Heavenly) trigram in the I Ching. The Qian Gua, Tuan Zhuan states:

"Great indeed is the Primal Beginning (Qian Yuan), the beginning of the myriad things, thus encompassing Heaven. Clouds gather and rain falls, the myriad things display their forms. Great brightness completes the beginning and end; the six positions complete themselves in time, riding the six dragons to govern Heaven. The Way of Qian transforms, each settling its own nature and destiny, harmonizing in the Great Peace, thus benefiting and persevering. It puts forth all things first, and the myriad states find tranquility."

"The Way of Qian transforms, each settling its own nature and destiny" (Ge Zheng Xing Ming)—the transformation of the Qian Way causes all things to attain their proper nature and destiny. This "settling of nature and destiny" is the "self-completion" of all things. Things achieve their respective natures and destinies not because of external force, but because of the inherent efficacy of the Heavenly Dao (the Authentic substance). This is the meaning of "That which is authentic completes itself."

Why emphasize "self-completion"$10 Because if "Authenticity" were not "self-completing," but required external force to be established, then it would not be true "Authenticity." Something that needs an external guarantee of its truth is inherently flawed and deficient—but the meaning of Cheng lies precisely in "true and non-artificial" and "full and complete." Thus, "Authenticity" must be "self-completing."

Section 2: "And the Dao Guides Itself" (Er Dao Zi Dao Ye)

"And the Dao guides itself" (Er Dao Zi Dao Ye)—this line is even more subtle.

"Dao guides itself"—the first Dao is the noun, referring to the Great Dao of Heaven and Earth; the second Dao is the verb, meaning to guide or walk. "The Dao guides itself"—the Dao guides itself.

How does this line relate to "That which is authentic completes itself"$11

These two phrases form a parallel pair:

That which is authentic completes itself (Cheng zhe zi cheng ye)—Authenticity completes itself.
The Dao guides itself (Dao zi Dao ye)—The Dao guides itself.

The relationship is that "Authenticity" (Cheng) and "Dao" are not two separate things here, but two aspects of the same reality. Cheng emphasizes the truthfulness of the substance (what it is), while Dao emphasizes the unfolding of its function (how it operates). "Authenticity completes itself" speaks of the self-sufficiency of the substance; "The Dao guides itself" speaks of the self-propulsion of its function. Taken together: the true substance naturally unfolds its own path, requiring no external guidance.

This meaning is also echoed in the I Ching. The Appendix III states:

"One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao; what follows it is good (Shan); what completes it is nature (Xing)."

"One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao"—the alternation of Yin and Yang is the Dao. This operation is not arranged by an external agent but follows the inherent logic of Yin and Yang. When Yin reaches its extreme, Yang arises; when Yang reaches its extreme, Yin arises—this is the natural tendency. "What follows it is good"—the continuation of this operation is goodness. "What completes it is nature"—the actualization of this operation in the individual is nature.

The entire process—from Dao to Goodness to Nature—unfolds naturally, without external intervention. This is the meaning of "The Dao guides itself."

However, a distinction must be made between Confucianism and Daoism here. Laozi states "The Dao follows the spontaneity of nature" (Dao Fa Zi Ran), where Zi Ran emphasizes "non-action" (Wu Wei)—the Dao does not deliberately act; everything proceeds naturally. The Zhongyong's "The Dao guides itself" (Dao Zi Dao Ye), while certainly implying naturalness, leans more toward "self-consciousness" (Zi Jue)—in man, the Dao not only operates naturally but is also expressed as moral self-consciousness—knowing good from evil, choosing and firmly adhering to the good.

This subtle difference can be seen through the character Cheng. Laozi's Dao is value-neutral; it is just "natural." The Zhongyong's Cheng has "Authenticity" as its essence—it is not only natural, but it is also truly real and completely full, without artificiality. This "true and non-artificial" quality, when expressed in man, manifests as moral self-consciousness—knowing good and evil, choosing and firmly adhering to the good. This sense of "self-consciousness" is unique to the Zhongyong's expression of "The Dao guides itself."

Section 3: "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things; without authenticity, there are no things."

This sentence extends the meaning of Cheng from the Heavenly Dao to the myriad things.

"Cheng zhe wu zhi zhong shi"—Authenticity is the beginning and end of all things. The beginning and end of every thing depend on "Authenticity."

What does this mean$12

The "beginning" (Shi) of a thing—the reason it can arise and exist—is "Authenticity." Cheng is the true principle, and every thing has its own true principle, thus each can exist. Without principle, there are no things—something without a basis in truth cannot exist.

The "end" (Zhong) of a thing—the reason it can develop and reach completion—is also because of "Authenticity." The process of a thing from beginning to end is the gradual unfolding and realization of its "Authenticity" (true nature). A seed can grow into a great tree because the seed inherently contains the "Authenticity" (true nature) of a great tree. The "beginning" of the seed is Cheng, and the "end" of the tree is also Cheng—it is consistent from beginning to end.

"Bu cheng wu wu"—Without authenticity, there are no things. This statement is extremely abrupt. It implies that "Authenticity" is not an attribute added externally to the myriad things; it is the fundamental condition for their existence. Something unreal (something without Cheng) cannot even be called a "thing"—it is merely illusion.

This idea has deep roots in pre-Qin philosophy.

The I Ching, Qian Gua, Wen Yan states:

"The Primal Beginning (Qian Yuan) is that which initiates and causes flourishing. Benefit and perseverance are inherent in nature and disposition. The Qian, being the first, is able to benefit the world with beautiful advantages, yet speaks not of its own benefit—how great it is!..."

"The Primal Beginning initiates and causes flourishing" (Qian Yuan, Shi Er Heng)—Qian Yuan (the primal source of the Heavenly Dao) benefits the world with its beautiful advantages. This "beginning" (Shi) is the "beginning" in "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things"—the beginning of all things stems from the Qian Yuan (the Authentic substance) of the Heavenly Dao.

Furthermore, the I Ching, Appendix III states: "The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is life." The greatest virtue of Heaven and Earth is "life"—the generation of myriad things. This "life" is possible precisely because Heaven and Earth are "Authentic." If Heaven and Earth were not "Authentic" (not real), they could not generate the myriad things.

Mencius's discussion can also be referenced. Mencius, Li Lou (Part 1) states: "Authenticity (Cheng) is the Way of Heaven." The essence of the Heavenly Dao is Authenticity. Since all things are generated by the Heavenly Dao, all things take Authenticity as their beginning. All things return to the Heavenly Dao ("end"), also taking Authenticity as their end. "Without authenticity, there are no things"—apart from the Authenticity of the Heavenly Dao, no thing can exist.

Section 4: "Therefore, the exemplary person values authenticity above all."

From the metaphysical proposition "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things; without authenticity, there are no things," the text immediately transitions to human conduct: "Therefore, the exemplary person values authenticity above all" (Shi gu junzi cheng zhi wei gui).

This turn is extremely crucial. It shows that the Zhongyong's discussion of "Authenticity" is not merely about establishing an abstract ontology, but about implementing this ontology in human cultivation.

Why does the exemplary person value "Authenticity" above all$13

Because "Authenticity" is the fundamental basis of all existence. All things begin and end with Cheng; without Cheng, there are no things. Man is also one of the myriad things—if a person is not authentic, the "personhood" (Ren Ge) itself cannot be established. A dishonest person's benevolence, righteousness, rites, and wisdom are all false; everything they do is unreal—equivalent to "no thing."

Thus, "the exemplary person values authenticity above all"—the exemplary person regards Cheng as the most precious thing. It is not just one item among moral qualities, but the foundation of all moral qualities. Without Cheng, benevolence cannot be called benevolence, righteousness cannot be called righteousness, rites cannot be called rites, and wisdom cannot be called wisdom.

The Analects, Wei Zheng states: "If a man has no faith (Xin), I do not know what he can do. How can a large cart proceed without a coupling-pin, or a small cart without a cross-bar$14" This concept of Xin (faithfulness/trustworthiness) is close to Cheng. If a man lacks Xin (is inauthentic), he is like a cart without its crucial connecting parts, unable to move. The functioning of all virtues depends on Cheng as the pivot.

Furthermore, the Analects, Xue Er states: "Flattering words and a pretentious manner are seldom associated with true benevolence (Ren)." Those who use flattering words and wear pretentious expressions are inauthentic. Such inauthentic people will have little Ren. Conversely, "Being firm and resolute, simple and honest, is close to benevolence" (Gang Yi Mu Ne Jin Ren)—those who are firm, resolute, simple, and unadorned are closer to Ren because they do not feign or pretend—they are "Authentic."

Chapter 6: "Authenticity does not merely complete oneself; it is that by which things are completed."

Section 1: From "Self-Completion" to "Completion of Things"—The Outward Orientation of Authenticity

"Authenticity does not merely complete oneself; it is that by which things are completed" (Cheng zhe fei zi cheng ji er yi ye, suo yi cheng wu ye). This line is a vital supplement and progression from "That which is authentic completes itself."

The previous statement, "That which is authentic completes itself," might give the impression that Cheng only involves self-achievement and is unrelated to other things. This line immediately corrects that misconception: Cheng not only completes the self but is also the means by which things are completed.

How is this possible$15

Because "Authenticity" is not the private possession of an individual; it is the fundamental reality of the Heavenly Dao. The Authenticity of the Heavenly Dao is present in all things—"Authenticity is the beginning and end of things." My Cheng is the manifestation of the Heavenly Dao's Cheng within me. When I achieve ultimate sincerity, what I manifest is not merely "my" sincerity, but the Authenticity of the Heavenly Dao. And the Authenticity of the Heavenly Dao is inherently about "completing things"—the "great virtue of Heaven and Earth is life," meaning Heaven and Earth generate all things through their authenticity. My ultimate sincerity must therefore possess this function of "completing things."

This meaning aligns deeply with Confucius's educational practice. Confucius's teaching was aimed at completing others as his own goal. The Analects, Yong Ye states: "The benevolent person, wishing to establish himself, also establishes others; wishing to be accomplished, also helps others to be accomplished. Being able to take an example close at hand and apply it universally—this may be called the method of benevolence."

"Wishing to establish himself, also establishes others; wishing to be accomplished, also helps others to be accomplished" (Ji Yu Li Er Li Ren, Ji Yu Da Er Da Ren)—one's own "establishment" and "accomplishment" is "completing the self," while helping others to "establish" and "accomplish" is "completing things."

Why must the self's "establishment" and "accomplishment" extend to others$16 Because that is the nature of "Authenticity." The person of ultimate sincerity shares the same body as Heaven and Earth—Heaven and Earth do not generate just one thing, but all things. The love of the supremely sincere person extends not just to the self but to all things.

Section 2: "To complete oneself is benevolence (Ren); to complete things is wisdom (Zhi)."

This line corresponds "completing the self" to Ren (Benevolence) and "completing things" to Zhi (Wisdom).

"To complete oneself is benevolence" (Cheng ji, Ren ye)—To complete oneself is Ren.

Why is completing oneself Ren$17 Ren means love, and also self-love. However, this "self-love" is not self-love based on selfish desire, but the self-love involved in achieving one's true inherent nature. To make oneself a genuine person—to fully realize the nature bestowed by Heaven—this is "completing the self," and this is Ren.

Mencius, Jin Xin (Part 2) states: "Ren is man. Combined, it is the Dao." Ren is the Way of being human. "Completing the self" means making oneself a true "man." What makes a man human is his capacity to be "benevolent." Therefore, "to complete oneself is benevolence."

The Analects, Yan Yuan states: "To subdue oneself and return to propriety (Li) is benevolence (Ren). If a man can one day subdue himself and return to propriety, all under Heaven will return to benevolence. To practice benevolence is a matter of one's own self; is it the business of others$18" "Wei Ren You Ji"—the realization of Ren depends on oneself. This "depending on oneself" is "completing the self."

"To complete things is wisdom" (Cheng wu, Zhi ye)—To complete things is Zhi.

Why is completing things Zhi$19 Because "completing things" requires understanding the distinct characteristics and needs of all things. All things have their own nature—plants have the nature of plants, beasts have the nature of beasts, and men have the nature of men. To complete them, one must know what each needs and what is suitable for it. This is "Wisdom" (Zhi).

The I Ching, Appendix III states: "If one understands the totality of the myriad things and thus assists the world with the Dao, one does not transgress." Knowledge that extends to the myriad things is what "assists the world." This Zhi is the prerequisite for "completing things."

Moreover, the Analects, Wei Zheng states: "To know when you know something, and to know when you do not know something—that is knowledge." This states that the primary condition for Zhi is truth—not deceiving oneself, not falsely claiming knowledge. This is also "Authenticity" (Cheng). Thus, Zhi and Cheng are interconnected.

The Analects, Yong Ye states: "The wise man delights in water; the benevolent man delights in mountains. The wise man is active; the benevolent man is tranquil. The wise man is happy; the benevolent man is long-lived." The wise man is active and delights in water—Zhi possesses the characteristics of movement, flexibility, and unobstructed flow, which is precisely what is needed for "completing things." Because the myriad things are diverse, completing them requires flexible and penetrating wisdom, capable of applying different methods according to the difference of things.

However, "to complete oneself is benevolence" and "to complete things is wisdom" are not strictly separate. Ren and Zhi are originally one. The Zhongyong later states: "It is the virtue of the nature, the Way that unites the inner and the outer." Ren focuses on the inner (completing the self), while Zhi focuses on the outer (completing things), but the inner and outer are fundamentally one. Completing the self implies the function of completing things, and completing things realizes the merit of completing the self.

This subtle connection can be illustrated by the practices of Confucius's disciples.

Yan Hui—The Analects, Yong Ye states: "Hui’s mind, for three months, did not depart from benevolence." Yan Hui's learning focused on completing his own Ren. "Did not depart from benevolence" (Bu Wei Ren)—constantly maintaining the benevolent mind, never letting it slip away. This is the ultimate realization of "completing the self."

Zigong—Zigon was skilled in rhetoric, diplomacy, and commerce. Texts like the Zuo Zhuan and Guoyu record his diplomatic journeys. This is the wisdom (Zhi) of "completing things"—influencing the external world through wisdom.

However, Yan Hui's self-completion was not selfish; his mind that "did not depart from benevolence" naturally influenced others ("When Yanzi employed it, though without office, he became a teacher for all ages"). Zigong's completion of things was not superficial; his diplomatic skill was rooted in his sincere belief in righteousness and the Dao. Therefore, completing the self and completing things are ultimately two sides of one matter.

Section 3: "It is the virtue of the nature, the Way that unites the inner and the outer, and therefore it is appropriately applied at all times."

"It is the virtue of the nature" (Xing zhi de ye)—This unity of completing the self and completing things, the integration of Ren and Zhi, is the inherent "virtue" (De) of "Nature" (Xing).

Xing is the inherent reality bestowed by Heaven. De means "gain," the inherent function of Xing. The Ren of completing the self and the Zhi of completing things are not externally added; they are originally possessed by human nature. This connects with the Zhongyong's opening line: "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature." The nature bestowed by Heaven inherently contains Ren and Zhi and inherently possesses the capacity for self-completion and completion of things.

"The Way that unites the inner and the outer" (He Wai Nei Zhi Dao ye)—This Way of completing the self and things unites the "outer" and the "inner."

The "inner" is completing the self, Ren. The "outer" is completing things, Zhi. The two are not opposing poles but two faces of one substance. Uniting the outer and inner means dissolving the separation between them, so that completing the self is completing things, and completing things realizes the completion of the self.

This concept of "uniting the outer and inner" has significant meaning in pre-Qin thought.

The I Ching, Kun Gua, Wen Yan states: "Kun, though extremely yielding, acts vigorously; though extremely still, its virtue is upright. It receives the master later and possesses constancy; it contains the myriad things and transforms them with light. How smooth is the Way of Kun! It follows Heaven and acts according to the time. It receives the master later and possesses constancy; it contains the myriad things and transforms them with light."

"It contains the myriad things and transforms them with light" (Han Wan Wu Er Hua Guang)—The Way of Kun contains all things and causes them to transform and shine. This "containing" is the inner, and "transforming/shining" is the outer. The virtue of the Kun Way unites the inner (containing) and the outer (transforming) into one. This is the meaning of "the Way that unites the inner and the outer."

Mencius, Gongsun Chou (Part 1) states: "When cultivating this Qi, it is most vast and most rigid. If nourished uprightly without harm, it fills the space between Heaven and Earth... This Qi matches righteousness and the Dao; without this, it starves. This is generated by accumulated righteousness; it is not seized by aggression."

The "vast and mighty Qi" is nurtured internally ("in the heart") but "fills the space between Heaven and Earth" (outwardly). Inner and outer are unified—this is the "Way that unites the inner and the outer."

"And therefore it is appropriately applied at all times" (Gu Shi Cuo Zhi Yi ye)—Therefore, in every time and situation, one can naturally make appropriate responses.

"Time" (Shi) refers to opportunity and timeliness. "Application" (Cuo) refers to action or execution. "Appropriate" (Yi) means suitable. Since completing the self and completing things are unified, and the inner and outer are no longer separated, one can naturally respond appropriately at any time or in any situation.

This "appropriate application at all times" is what Confucius called "timing" (Shi Zhong). The Analects, Wei Zi states: "I am different from others; I am capable of nothing, and incapable of nothing." Confucius was capable of nothing and incapable of nothing—everything depended on the opportune moment, neither too early nor too late, neither too much nor too little. This "capable of nothing and incapable of nothing" is precisely the meaning of "appropriately applied at all times."

The I Ching, Qian Gua, Wen Yan states: "Vigilant all day long, one follows the time." To follow the time means moving in sync with the opportune moment, neither preceding nor lagging behind, neither deviating to one side nor the other. This is "appropriately applied at all times."

Mencius, Wan Zhang (Part 2) discusses the difference between Bo Yi, Yi Yin, Liu Xiahui, and Confucius:

"Bo Yi was the purest of the sages; Yi Yin was the one who took responsibility; Liu Xiahui was the sage of harmony; Confucius was the sage of timing. Confucius is the one who achieved the great synthesis. To achieve the great synthesis is like striking the metal chime and then the jade pendants."

Confucius was the "sage of timing" (Sheng zhi Shi zhe)—a sage who responded according to the time, adapting to circumstances. This character Shi (timing) corresponds to the Shi in "appropriately applied at all times." The reason Confucius could adapt to the times is precisely because he "united the inner and the outer"—his inner heart was supremely sincere, and his wisdom was penetrating, enabling him to make the most appropriate response in any situation.

Chapter 7: "Thus, the utmost authenticity is ceaseless"—From Authenticity to Ceaselessness

Section 1: What is "Utmost Authenticity" (Zhi Cheng)$20

"Utmost Authenticity" (Zhi Cheng)—the extreme degree of authenticity. Zhi means extreme or ultimate. Zhi Cheng refers to the state where authenticity reaches its apex, containing not a single trace of inauthenticity.

In pre-Qin texts, the concept of Zhi Cheng is primarily found in the Zhongyong. However, its philosophical foundation can be traced back to earlier documents.

The Shangshu: Kang Gao states:

"Truly remember the profoundly manifest virtue of your illustrious father King Wen, who was able to illuminate virtue and be cautious in punishment. He dared not insult the widowed and orphaned; he was diligent in service, reverent in manner, awe-inspiring in appearance, and made the people clear."

This describes King Wen's virtue—illuminating virtue and being cautious in punishment, never deceiving the weak—this sincere and non-deceptive attitude is the embryonic form of "Utmost Authenticity."

The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Wen Wang states:

"The solemn King Wen, with utmost caution and reverence. Clearly serving the High God, he thus attained abundant blessings. His virtue did not turn away, thus he received the vassal states."

"Xiao Xin Yi Yi"—extremely cautious and reverent. This is the practice of "caution when alone" (Shen Du). "Zhao Shi Shang Di"—clearly serving the High God. "Jue De Bu Hui"—His virtue did not turn away (was true and unswerving). All these are manifestations of "Utmost Authenticity."

The Zhongyong later states: "Only the utmost sincerity under Heaven can fully realize one's nature. If one can fully realize one's nature, one can fully realize the nature of others. If one can fully realize the nature of others, one can fully realize the nature of things. If one can fully realize the nature of things, one can assist Heaven and Earth in their transformations and nurture. If one can assist Heaven and Earth in their transformations and nurture, one can partake in the symmetry of Heaven and Earth."

This passage is paramount. The person of "Utmost Authenticity" can "fully realize one's nature" (Jin Qi Xing)—fully realizing one's innate nature. From this, one extends to the nature of man and the nature of things, ultimately reaching the state of "assisting Heaven and Earth in their transformations and nurture" and "partaking in the symmetry of Heaven and Earth." This is the ultimate unfolding of "to complete oneself is benevolence; to complete things is wisdom."

Section 2: What is "Ceaselessness" (Wu Xi)$21

"The utmost authenticity is ceaseless" (Zhi cheng wu xi)—the Way of utmost authenticity has no cessation.

Xi means stopping or resting. "Ceaseless" (Wu Xi) means non-stop, uninterrupted.

Why must "Utmost Authenticity" be "ceaseless"$22

Because the essence of "Authenticity" is the Heavenly Dao, and the operation of the Heavenly Dao is eternally ceaseless.

The I Ching, Qian Gua, Xiang Zhuan states: "The movement of Heaven is strong and vigorous; the exemplary person continually strives for self-strengthening without ceasing (Zi Qiang Bu Xi)."

"The movement of Heaven is strong and vigorous" (Tian Xing Jian)—the operation of the Heavenly Dao is relentlessly vigorous. Thus, the exemplary person emulates the Heavenly Dao and strives tirelessly on their own behalf. This "without ceasing" (Bu Xi) is synonymous with "ceaseless" (Wu Xi).

Why does Heaven not cease$23 Because the Heavenly Dao is "Authentic"—it is truly real and non-artificial. Real things have no reason to stop. Only false things cease because they cannot sustain themselves. The downward flow of water will not cease (unless obstructed by external force); the upward burning of fire will not cease (unless fuel is exhausted). The downward flow of water and the upward burning of fire are inherent in their true nature, thus they are "ceaseless." Similarly, the operation of the Heavenly Dao is inherent in its nature of "Authenticity," thus it is "ceaseless."

Why does only "Utmost Authenticity" lead to "ceaselessness," while ordinary authenticity does not$24

Because ordinary authenticity may still contain elements of inauthenticity. Where there is one trace of inauthenticity, there is one trace of effort or strain; where there is strain, there is fatigue; where there is fatigue, there is cessation. Only "Utmost Authenticity"—sincerity without impurity—can resemble the operation of the Heavenly Dao, continuing endlessly.

This meaning is beautifully illustrated by Mencius in Gongsun Chou (Part 1):

"One must attend to it, yet not force it; the mind must not forget it, nor attempt to hasten its growth. Do not be like the man of Song, who, concerned that his seedlings were not growing, pulled them up. He returned home exhausted and said to his family: 'Today I am ill; I have helped the seedlings to grow!' His son ran to look, and the seedlings were already withered. Few under Heaven are those who do not help seedlings to grow! Those who abandon it because they think it useless are those who do not weed the seedlings. Those who help them grow are those who pull them up. Not only is it useless, but it also harms them."

"One must attend to it, yet not force it; the mind must not forget it, nor attempt to hasten its growth" (Bi You Shi Yan Er Wu Zheng, Xin Wu Wang, Wu Zhu Zhang)—cultivation must be continuous ("not forget"), but one must not rush it ("not hasten growth"), because "Authenticity completes itself"—it unfolds naturally.

Section 3: "If ceaseless, it is long-lasting" (Bu Xi Ze Jiu)

Following "the utmost authenticity is ceaseless," the Zhongyong unfolds a series of progressive inferences: "If ceaseless, it is long-lasting (Jiu); if long-lasting, it yields verification (Zheng); if it yields verification, it is far-reaching (You Yuan); if far-reaching, it is broad and profound (Bo Hou); if broad and profound, it is lofty and bright (Gao Ming)."

"If ceaseless, it is long-lasting" (Bu Xi Ze Jiu)—By not stopping, it becomes enduring. This seems simple, but it is profound.

Jiu means long-lasting or constant. The I Ching has the Heng (Constancy) Gua, which discusses the Way of endurance. The Heng Gua, Tuan Zhuan states:

"Heng means long-lasting. Rigid above and yielding below, Thunder and Wind mutually assist each other, thus Xun (Wind/Penetration) acts through movement, and both rigid and yielding respond—this is Heng. Heng brings success and perseverance is beneficial, because it is long-lasting in its Way. The Way of Heaven and Earth is long-lasting and ceaseless. Benefit has a direction, implying that the end becomes the beginning. The sun and moon attain Heaven and thus can shine long; the four seasons transform and thus can complete things long-lasting. The sage endures in his Way, and the world is transformed and completed. Observe what endures, and the nature of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things can be known."

"The Way of Heaven and Earth is long-lasting and ceaseless" (Tian Di Zhi Dao, Heng Jiu Er Bu Yi ye)—the Dao of Heaven and Earth is constant and unending. "The sage endures in his Way, and the world is transformed and completed." Endurance is not simple longevity in time. It implies a qualitative accumulation—continuous persistence allows the power of Cheng to accumulate and deepen constantly. Just as the Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Wen Wang says: "Though Zhou is an old state, its mandate is renewed." Zhou is old, yet its mandate is constantly renewed—this "old" is "long-lasting" (Jiu), but within endurance there is "renewal."

Section 4: "If long-lasting, it yields verification" (Jiu Ze Zheng)

Zheng means verification, proof, or manifest indication. "If long-lasting, it yields verification"—after prolonged endurance, verification will appear.

What does this mean$25

A tree, once planted, requires a long time to grow (Jiu), before it can flower and bear fruit (Zheng). A person who cultivates sincerity, day after day (Jiu), will eventually manifest the radiance of virtue in their words and actions (Zheng). A state that implements a virtuous governance for years (Jiu) will eventually show the effects of education in its customs and populace (Zheng).

Zheng is the natural result of Jiu. One does not seek Zheng; one achieves Jiu (ceaseless ultimate sincerity), and Zheng naturally arrives. This is the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity"—real things, if sustained, will eventually manifest.

This meaning is well-illustrated in the history of governance. The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Zhuang Tenth Year recounts Cao Gui discussing war: Duke Zhuang asked, "By what means shall we fight$26" Cao Gui questioned the basis of the Duke's reliance. The Duke first mentioned sharing food and resources, which Cao Gui dismissed as "small favors not universally applied, so the people will not follow." The Duke then mentioned treating sacrifices with sincerity, which Cao Gui dismissed as "small trust not fully convincing, so the spirits will not bless." Finally, the Duke mentioned handling major and minor legal cases sincerely. Cao Gui replied, "This is allied with loyalty; we can fight one battle."

In this exchange, "small trust not fully convincing" (Xiao Xin Wei Fu) refers to Zheng—sincerity has not truly achieved profound verification. Only "handling cases with feeling" (Yi Qing)—dealing with lawsuits with a sincere heart—is "allied with loyalty" (Zhong zhi shu ye), and constitutes true "verification" (Zheng). If one persistently treats the people's affairs with sincerity (Jiu), the people will truly be convinced (Zheng).

Section 5: "If it yields verification, it is far-reaching" (Zheng Ze You Yuan)

"Far-reaching" (You Yuan) means deep and extensive in influence. "If it yields verification, it is far-reaching"—once verification appears, its influence is not confined to the immediate moment but radiates outward and penetrates deeper.

Once the effect of virtue is manifested, it does not stop at the present but radiates to the distant future and permeates deeply. The virtue of a person who has achieved sincerity and seen its verification spreads far—disciples teach disciples, and the thought continues to propagate, with ever-deeper influence. The virtuous governance of a state that has achieved verification (like the virtue of King Wen) has far-reaching effects—"two-thirds of the world submitted," and distant lords willingly defected without conflict.

The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Si Qi states:

"Thinking of the great mother, the mother of King Wen. Thinking of the charming Jiang, wife of the central quarters. Great Si inherited fine sounds, and bore a hundred sons."

It continues:

"Exemplifying this to the few women, extending it to the brothers, thereby controlling the state and domain."

The virtue of King Wen began by "exemplifying this to the few women" (Xing Yu Gua Qi)—setting an example before his wife. How "subtle" (Wei)! Yet it "extended to the brothers" (Zhi Yu Xiong Di) and "controlled the state and domain" (Yi Yu Jia Bang)—spreading from the near to the far. This is "verification leading to far-reaching influence."

Section 6: "If far-reaching, it is broad and profound" (You Yuan Ze Bo Hou)

"Broad and profound" (Bo Hou) means wide-ranging and deep. "If far-reaching, it is broad and profound"—once the influence is far-reaching, it becomes wide-ranging and deep.

Why does far-reaching influence necessarily lead to breadth and profundity$27

Because the deep and distant expansion of influence necessarily leads to an increase in capacity and a deepening of foundation. The deeper the roots of a tree go (far-reaching), the wider its crown (Bo) and the thicker its trunk (Hou). The deeper the cultivation of a person who has achieved far-reaching sincerity, the broader their capacity and the deeper their foundation.

"Broad and profound" in the Zhongyong has a specific metaphor—corresponding to Earth (Pei Di). The characteristic of the Earth is precisely "broad and profound": boundless in scope, unfathomable in depth, carrying all things without refusal.

The I Ching, Kun Gua, Xiang Zhuan states: "The disposition of Earth is yielding; the exemplary person cultivates deep virtue to carry things (Hou De Zai Wu)." The posture of Earth is Kun—yielding yet substantial. The exemplary person emulates the Earth by cultivating deep virtue to carry all things. This "deep virtue to carry things" is the meaning of "Broad and profound is what carries things."

Section 7: "If broad and profound, it is lofty and bright" (Bo Hou Ze Gao Ming)

"Lofty and bright" (Gao Ming) means high and far-reaching, yet luminous. "If broad and profound, it is lofty and bright"—after becoming wide-ranging and deep, one achieves loftiness and brightness.

The logic here is: the deeper the foundation, the higher one can rise. If one pursues loftiness and brightness without a deep foundation, it is "empty"—like a castle in the air, doomed to collapse.

"Lofty and bright" in the Zhongyong is metaphorically compared to "corresponding to Heaven" (Pei Tian). The characteristic of Heaven is precisely "lofty and bright": high and boundless, luminous and illuminating everything, covering all things without omission.

The I Ching, Qian Gua, Xiang Zhuan states: "The movement of Heaven is strong and vigorous; the exemplary person continually strives for self-strengthening without ceasing." The ceaseless vigor of the Heavenly Dao is both "lofty" and "bright." "Continually strives without ceasing" (Zi Qiang Bu Xi)—this is another expression for "the utmost authenticity is ceaseless."

Broad and profound, and lofty and bright, correspond to Kun and Qian, Earth and Heaven. Kun is the foundation, Qian is the function; Earth carries, Heaven covers. The two must work together to achieve greatness.

Section 8: The Three-Dimensional Unfolding of Broad/Profound, Lofty/Bright, and Long-Lasting

The Zhongyong then unfolds these three qualities:

"Broad and profound is what carries things (Zai Wu)." "Lofty and bright is what covers things (Fu Wu)." "Long-lasting is what completes things (Cheng Wu)."

These three dimensions correspond to the three aspects of the cosmos: Heaven, Earth, and Time.

Broad and profound—Earth—spatial breadth (carrying things).
Lofty and bright—Heaven—spatial height (covering things).
Long-lasting—Time—duration (completing things).

The existence of all things requires space to be carried (Earth), light to cover them (Heaven), and time to complete them (Duration). All three are indispensable.

"Broad and profound corresponds to Earth; lofty and bright corresponds to Heaven; long-lasting is boundless (Wu Jiang)."

Pei (corresponding) means matching or being equivalent to. The breadth and profundity of utmost authenticity are sufficient to match the Earth; the loftiness and brightness of utmost authenticity are sufficient to match Heaven. The long-lasting nature of utmost authenticity is "boundless"—without limits or end.

Upon closer reflection, why is Earth and Heaven "matched," but long-lasting is merely "boundless" and not "matched" to anything specific$28 Because Earth has its limit (though vast, it has a boundary), and Heaven has its limit (though lofty, it has a dome). But "long-lasting" refers to the infinity of time—true boundlessness.

Perhaps this "boundless" (Wu Jiang) can also be understood to mean that once the three aspects—broad/profound, lofty/bright, and long-lasting—are unified, the resulting state transcends the comparison with any specific finite object. Heaven and Earth, though vast, are still finite things. The virtue of utmost authenticity, at its ultimate level, is "boundless"—no finite object can match it.

This meaning aligns with the Zhongyong's opening: "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature." The nature bestowed by Heaven is inherently boundless—because it comes from the Heavenly Dao, which is infinite and unending. If man can achieve "utmost authenticity and ceaselessness," then the manifestation of his nature will also be boundless, just like the Heavenly Dao.

The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Xia Wu states: "Clearly remember the future path, follow the footsteps of your ancestors. For ten thousand years and more, receive Heaven's blessings. Receiving Heaven's blessings, the four directions come to offer congratulations. For ten thousand years and more, there will be no lack of support."

"Yu Wan Si Nian" (For ten thousand years and more)—ten thousand years and ten thousand more. This is the poetic expression of "long-lasting and boundless." The people of Zhou believed that the virtue of King Wen and King Wu could last for ten thousand years—this is not only praise for the ancestors but also faith in "utmost authenticity and ceaselessness": the influence of genuine virtue is eternal.

Chapter 8: "Manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting"—The Ultimate Manifestation of the Authentic Substance

Section 1: "Manifest without being seen" (Bu Jian Er Zhang)

"Manifest without being seen" (Bu Jian Er Zhang)—without displaying itself, it naturally becomes clear.

Jian (seen) means to appear or manifest. Zhang means clarity or manifestation. "Manifest without being seen"—without deliberately making itself visible, it naturally manifests itself.

This line echoes the discussion in Part One regarding the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits"—Gui Shen are "looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard," yet they "integrate with all things and cannot be left out." Gui Shen do not display themselves ("not seen"), yet their virtue is magnificently manifest ("Zhang").

This idea is richly expressed in pre-Qin texts.

The Laozi, Chapter 2, states: "Therefore, the sage manages affairs by non-action and practices teaching without words. The myriad things arise and he does not reject them; he gives birth to them but does not possess them; he acts but does not rely on his action; when his task is done, he does not claim credit. Precisely because he does not claim credit, it never leaves him."

"Gives birth to them but does not possess them; acts but does not rely on his action; when his task is done, he does not claim credit"—this is "not seen." "Precisely because he does not claim credit, it never leaves him"—precisely because he does not claim credit, his achievements never depart. This is "manifest."

The more one deliberately displays oneself, the more the displayed aspect appears artificial, not real. But "not seen"—not deliberately displaying—means everything flows out naturally, without artifice. What flows out naturally is real, and what is real has power—"the inextinguishable nature of authenticity."

The Analects, Tai Bo states: "How great was the reign of Yao! As great as Heaven, and only Heaven could emulate him. Boundless, the people could find no name for him. How grand was his accomplishment! How brilliant were his patterns!"

"Boundless, the people could find no name for him" (Dang Dang Hu Min Wu Neng Ming Yan)—the people could not give a proper name to Yao's virtue. Why could they find no name$1 Because Yao's virtue was too vast and natural, like Heaven—how can you name the greatness of Heaven$2 Precisely because he "did not advertise" his achievements ("not seen"), his virtue became more profoundly admired ("manifest," i.e., "brilliant patterns").

Similarly, the Analects, Tai Bo states: "How grand that Shun and Yu possessed the world yet acted as if they had nothing to do with it!" Shun and Yu possessed the world but acted as if they were uninvolved—this "non-involvement" is "not seen"—they did not boast of possessing the world. And precisely because of this, their greatness is even more awe-inspiring ("How grand!" i.e., "manifest").

Section 2: "Transforms without moving" (Bu Dong Er Bian)

"Transforms without moving" (Bu Dong Er Bian)—without taking deliberate action, things naturally change.

"Moving" (Dong) refers to willful action. "Change" (Bian) refers to the transformation of things. "Transforms without moving"—without intervening with willful action, things change naturally.

This aligns with "manifest without being seen." "Manifest without being seen" speaks of self-manifestation in terms of existence; "transforms without moving" speaks of self-transformation in terms of function.

What is the basis for this idea$3

Because the person of "utmost sincerity" shares the virtue of Heaven and Earth. Heaven and Earth nurture all things not by deliberately intervening in how every single thing grows—Heaven does not command every tree how to grow, and Earth does not dictate how every river should flow. Heaven and Earth merely provide the conditions through their "Authenticity" (real virtue)—Heaven provides sunlight and rain, Earth provides soil and nourishment—and then all things naturally grow and change.

The person of utmost sincerity is the same. He does not need to command and intervene in every matter; he only needs to maintain his sincere virtue, and this naturally influences the people and affairs around him. This influence is "transforms without moving"—it is not that he "does" something, but that his mere "presence" is generating change.

The Analects, Yan Yuan, records Ji Kangzi asking Confucius about governance. Confucius replied: "Governing is rectification (Zheng). If you, sir, lead with rectification, who would dare not rectify$4" He also said: "If you desire good, the people will be good. The virtue of the exemplary person is wind; the virtue of the petty person is grass. When the wind blows over the grass, it inevitably bends."

"The virtue of the exemplary person is wind, the virtue of the petty person is grass"—when the wind blows, the grass naturally bends down. This is "transforms without moving"—the exemplary person does not need to order the people to do anything; as long as his own virtue is upright and great (like the wind), the people will naturally be influenced (like the grass bending).

Furthermore, the Analects, Wei Zheng states: "To govern by means of virtue is like being the North Star, which remains in its place and all other stars turn toward it." The North Star "remains in its place" (Ju Qi Suo)—it does not move. Yet all other stars revolve around it—it does not move, but all things change around it. This is the best analogy for "transforms without moving."

Why do the stars revolve around the North Star without it moving$5 Because the North Star occupies the center of the heavens, and its position itself is the core of order. Similarly, the person of utmost sincerity occupies the center of morality; his very existence is the core of cultivation. He does not need to do anything; his being is enough to cause the surrounding world to change.

The I Ching, Appendix III states: "The Yi has no thought, no deliberate action; it is still and motionless, yet responsive, it consequently permeates the world." This is precisely the metaphysical basis for "transforms without moving." The Dao-substance of utmost sincerity is inherently "still and motionless," but once there is a resonance, it "consequently permeates the world"—the changes in all things occur because of this resonance.

Section 3: "Accomplishes without acting" (Wu Wei Er Cheng)

"Accomplishes without acting" (Wu Wei Er Cheng)—without deliberate action, everything is naturally achieved.

This line summarizes the entire section and represents the highest realm of the whole chapter.

"Non-action" (Wu Wei) here does not mean doing nothing, but acting without deliberate effort, strain, or artifice. The words and actions of the supremely sincere person flow naturally—arising from innate nature, conforming to the Heavenly Dao, requiring no intentional arrangement. This "non-action" is another way of stating "self-completion" and "self-guidance."

"And accomplishes" (Er Cheng)—yet everything is naturally achieved. "To complete oneself is benevolence; to complete things is wisdom"—both self-completion and completion of things are achieved. "Heaven and Earth take their proper places, and the myriad things are nurtured"—Heaven and Earth each remain in their positions, and all things receive their sustenance. Everything is accomplished, but not by "doing," but by "being so naturally."

This realm is described repeatedly in pre-Qin literature.

The Laozi, Chapter 37, states: "The Dao is constantly non-active, yet leaves nothing undone." The Dao is perpetually "non-active," yet nothing is left "undone." "Non-active" and "leaves nothing undone" seem contradictory, but they are unified—precisely because of "non-action" (not using forceful human effort to intervene), everything is "naturally accomplished."

The Laozi, Chapter 48, states: "In the pursuit of learning, increase what you know day by day; in the pursuit of the Dao, decrease what you know day by day. Decrease and decrease again, until you reach non-action. Achieve non-action, and yet nothing is left undone. When one manages the world by non-action, everything arises by itself; but when things arise by themselves, they are not sufficient to manage the world."

"In the pursuit of the Dao, decrease what you know day by day" (Wei Dao Ri Sun)—the process of cultivating the Dao is one of continuous reduction (removing artificial embellishments and false desires), eventually reaching Wu Wei (non-action). This "reduction" is not loss but the removal of inauthentic elements, returning to the original state of authenticity.

However, it must be noted that the Zhongyong's "accomplishes without acting" and Laozi's "non-action and yet nothing is left undone" share similar terminology but have subtle differences in connotation.

Laozi's Wu Wei emphasizes "non-attachment," "non-contention," and "non-desire"—removing artificial human actions to return to nature.

The Zhongyong's "Wu Wei" emphasizes "utmost authenticity" (Zhi Cheng)—acting naturally because one is supremely sincere, and acting without action because one is natural.

Laozi approaches from "subtraction"—decrease and decrease again, eliminating everything artificial.

The Zhongyong approaches from "fulfillment"—utmost sincerity and ceaselessness, filling the virtue of authenticity to the extreme, naturally leading to non-action.

Though the difference is subtle, it marks the boundary between Confucian and Daoist metaphysics. The sage of Laozi is like an "infant"—returning to the most primal, simple state. The supremely sincere person of the Zhongyong is like Heaven and Earth—reaching the most fulfilled and perfect state. Both paths converge on "accomplishes without acting," but their spiritual directions differ slightly.

Furthermore, the Zhuangzi, The Secret of the Art of Being True records the words of Huzhi when responding to Jixian, the teacher of Liezi: "I responded to him with emptiness and yielding like willow branches... I did not know who he was, so I let him become a follower, then a drifter, then a turbulent wave, and so I escaped." Huzhi responded to Jixian with states of "emptiness" and "yielding"—not countering action with action, but responding to form with formlessness. This is also a form of "non-action." Zhuangzi’s "non-action" lies in "emptiness"—emptying the self to respond to things.

Synthesizing the above, the three phrases "manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting" progress step-by-step:

Manifest without being seen—Self is not displayed, yet virtue manifests (level of existence).
Transforms without moving—No action taken, yet things transform (level of function).
Accomplishes without acting—No deliberate effort, yet affairs are accomplished (level of realization).

The convergence of these three means the ultimate state of "Utmost Authenticity"—like the operation of Heaven and Earth, it is natural, non-active yet accomplishing all, with all things arising and being completed through it.

Section 4: The Unification of the Dao of Heaven and Earth and the Dao of the Sage

"Manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting"—these three phrases describe both the Dao of Heaven and Earth and the Dao of the Sage. In the framework of the Zhongyong, the Dao of Heaven and Man are unified.

The Zhongyong begins: "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature (Xing)." The Heavenly Dao bestows nature upon man—human nature is the manifestation of the Heavenly Dao. Thus, if man can achieve utmost sincerity and ceaselessness, he returns to the original reality of the Heavenly Dao, uniting with Heaven and Earth.

This state of Heaven-Man unity is described extensively in pre-Qin literature.

The I Ching, Qian Gua, Wen Yan states: "The Great Man merges his virtue with Heaven and Earth, his brightness with the sun and moon, his order with the four seasons, and his fortune and misfortune with ghosts and spirits. He precedes Heaven, and Heaven does not oppose him; he follows Heaven's time, and conforms to Heaven's mandate. If even Heaven does not oppose him, how much less can men oppose him$6 How much less can ghosts and spirits oppose him$7"

This passage is arguably the ultimate expression of pre-Qin thought on Heaven-Man unity:

"Merges his virtue with Heaven and Earth" (He Tian Di Zhi De)—his virtue aligns with Heaven and Earth.
"His brightness with the sun and moon" (He Ri Yue Zhi Ming)—his clarity aligns with the sun and moon.
"His order with the four seasons" (He Si Shi Zhi Xu)—his actions align with the order of the four seasons.
"His fortune and misfortune with ghosts and spirits" (He Gui Shen Zhi Ji Xiong)—his resonance aligns with the fortune and misfortune of Gui Shen.

"He precedes Heaven, and Heaven does not oppose him" (Xian Tian Er Tian Bu Wei)—acting ahead of the Heavenly Dao, and Heaven does not oppose him. "He follows Heaven's time, and conforms to Heaven's mandate" (Hou Tian Er Feng Tian Shi)—acting later than the Heavenly Dao, he still conforms to Heaven's mandate.

This realm is the ultimate realization of "utmost authenticity and ceaselessness." The supremely sincere person unites completely with Heaven, Earth, and Gui Shen; his actions are the actions of the Heavenly Dao, and what he accomplishes is the accomplishment of the Heavenly Dao. "Manifest without being seen, transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting"—this is not only true of the Heavenly Dao; the great person of utmost sincerity is also like this.