Part Three: Synthesis and Inquiry—Authenticity and Spirit in the Complete Metaphysics of the Zhongyong

Chapter 9: The Intrinsic Connection Between the Chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" and the Chapter on "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself"

Section 1: The Logical Progression from "Ghosts and Spirits" to "Authenticity"

Reviewing the two passages discussed throughout this analysis, the logical relationship is clearly visible:

The Chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits"—Uses Gui Shen as an example to explain the principle that "the subtle yet manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity." This chapter starts from the concrete (characteristics of Gui Shen, the experience of sacrifice) and ultimately arrives at an abstract proposition: "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity."

The Chapter on "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself"—Directly unfolds the full scope of "Authenticity." It moves from self-completion to the completion of things, from ceaselessness to boundlessness, from broad/profound to manifest/unseen, transforming/unmoving, accomplishing/non-acting.

The relationship between the two can be compared to that of an "Introduction" and a "Treatise":

The chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" is the "Introduction"—it uses the familiar concept and experience of Gui Shen to guide the reader toward a deeper principle: that all subtle yet real existence possesses an inextinguishable power—this is "Authenticity."

The chapter "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself" is the "Treatise"—it directly discusses the totality of "Authenticity," no longer relying on the metaphor of Gui Shen, but unfolding its rich meaning starting from "Authenticity" itself.

However, the two chapters are not just externally connected; they have an intrinsic conceptual linkage.

Section 2: "Integrates with all things and cannot be left out" and "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things"

The "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" chapter states, "integrate with all things and cannot be left out" (Ti Wu Er Bu Ke Yi)—the virtue of Gui Shen inheres in all things without omission.

The "Authenticity Completes Itself" chapter states, "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things; without authenticity, there are no things" (Cheng zhe wu zhi zhong shi, bu cheng wu wu).

These two statements are essentially two expressions of the same idea:

"Integrates with all things and cannot be left out"—From the perspective of the virtue of Gui Shen, this virtue is present in all things.
"Authenticity is the beginning and end of things"—From the perspective of the Authentic substance, Cheng runs through the beginning and end of all things.

The reason the virtue of Gui Shen "integrates with all things" is precisely because the essence of this virtue is "Authenticity," and "Authenticity" is the "beginning and end of things." All things rely on Cheng as the basis for their existence, so the subtle manifestation of the virtue of Gui Shen (which is Cheng) cannot omit any thing—because "without authenticity, there are no things."

Section 3: "Overflowing as if above them" and "Manifest without being seen"

The "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" chapter speaks of being "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them" (Yang Yang hu Ru Zai Qi Shang, Ru Zai Qi Zuo You)—Gui Shen seem omnipresent, filling the surroundings of the sacrificer.

The "Authenticity Completes Itself" chapter speaks of being "manifest without being seen" (Bu Jian Er Zhang)—without displaying itself, it naturally becomes clear.

These two also correspond:

Gui Shen being "as if above them, as if beside them"—this is a concrete case of "manifest without being seen." Gui Shen do not display themselves (unseen, unheard), but their virtue is manifested in the sacrifice (overflowing as if present).
"Manifest without being seen" is the metaphysical summary of being "as if present"—all real existences possess this characteristic.

Section 4: "Causes all under Heaven to purify themselves..." and "Accomplishes without acting"

The "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" chapter states that Gui Shen "cause all under Heaven to purify themselves and wear their most solemn robes to receive the ancestral sacrifices"—the virtue of Gui Shen naturally elicits deep reverence in all under Heaven, prompting them to fast and sacrifice.

The "Authenticity Completes Itself" chapter states, "accomplishes without acting" (Wu Wei Er Cheng)—without deliberate effort, everything is naturally accomplished.

These two also correspond:

Gui Shen "cause" all under Heaven to purify themselves—this "cause" (Shi) is not command or coercion, but natural influence. Gui Shen never commanded anyone to sacrifice to them, yet people spontaneously feel they ought to. This is "accomplishes without acting"—the Gui Shen do nothing active, yet the act of sacrifice is accomplished naturally.

This "accomplishes without acting" is the functional manifestation of the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity." The power of Cheng does not need to be deliberately applied; it naturally influences the world. The supremely sincere person acts without action (Wu Wei), and the world is transformed—like the North Star remaining in its place while all other stars turn toward it.

Section 5: Synthesizing the Two Chapters to See the Full Picture of "Authenticity"

Synthesizing the two chapters, the Zhongyong's thought on "Authenticity" can be summarized in the following aspects:

I. Ontology of Authenticity: Cheng is the foundation of all things. "Cheng zhe wu zhi zhong shi, bu cheng wu wu." All existence relies on Cheng; without Cheng, there are no things.

II. Subtlety of Authenticity: The substance of Cheng is subtle and imperceptible. "We look for them and do not see them; we listen for them and do not hear them." It is not an object that can be grasped by the senses.

III. Omnipresence of Authenticity: Although Cheng is imperceptible, it is everywhere. "Integrates with all things and cannot be left out." It inheres in every single thing.

IV. Self-Sufficiency of Authenticity: Cheng is self-completing and self-sufficient. "Cheng zhe zi cheng ye, er Dao zi Dao ye." It requires no external force to achieve it.

V. Manifestation of Authenticity: Although subtle, Cheng will eventually manifest. "The subtle yet manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!" "Manifest without being seen."

VI. Creative Power of Authenticity: Cheng is not only the basis of existence but also the engine of creation. "To complete oneself is benevolence; to complete things is wisdom." Broad and profound carries things, lofty and bright covers things, long-lasting completes things.

VII. Limitlessness of Authenticity: The unfolding of Cheng is infinite. "Utmost authenticity is ceaseless." "Long-lasting is boundless."

VIII. Naturalness of Authenticity: The function of Cheng is spontaneous. "Transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting."

These eight aspects constitute the complete picture of the "Authenticity" thought in the Zhongyong.

Chapter 10: Comparison of "Authenticity" with Other Pre-Qin Philosophies

Section 1: "Authenticity" and the "Qian-Kun" of the I Ching

The "Authenticity" (Cheng) of the Zhongyong has profound correspondences with the dual structure of Qian (Heaven) and Kun (Earth) in the I Ching.

Creative Power of Authenticity—Corresponding to Qian's "Primal Beginning" (Yuan). The Qian Gua, Tuan Zhuan states: "Great indeed is the Primal Beginning, the beginning of the myriad things, thus encompassing Heaven." Qian Yuan is the beginning of all things. The Zhongyong's "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things" means Cheng is also the beginning of all things. The creative function of Cheng corresponds to the virtue of Qian Yuan.

Carrying Capacity of Authenticity—Corresponding to Kun's "Carrying Things." The Kun Gua, Xiang Zhuan states: "The disposition of Earth is yielding; the exemplary person cultivates deep virtue to carry things." The Zhongyong's "Broad and profound is what carries things"—the broad and profound nature of Cheng corresponds to the virtue of Kun.

Transformative Nature of Authenticity—Corresponding to the Yi's "Constant Change." The I Ching, Appendix IV states: "The Yi, as a book, cannot be distant; it is the Way that constantly changes. Changing without ceasing, flowing through the six positions, without constancy above or below, Yin and Yang interchanging, it cannot be fixed by rules, only adapted by change." This "changing without ceasing" and "adapted by change" resonates with the Zhongyong's "appropriately applied at all times" and "transforms without moving."

Spiritual Wonder of Authenticity—Corresponding to the Yi's "That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit (Shen)." The Appendix III states: "That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit." This Shen is the Shen in the Zhongyong's "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." The wonderful function of the Authentic substance is immeasurable, like the unpredictable changes of Yin-Yang—this is the meaning of "The arrival of the spirits, how cannot it be fathomed!"

Thus, the "Authenticity" of the Zhongyong encompasses the full function of the Qian and Kun in the I Ching—creation, carrying, transformation, and spiritual wonder. However, the Zhongyong unifies all these under the concept of "Authenticity," giving it a more focused expression.

Section 2: "Authenticity" and Laozi's "Dao"

The "Authenticity" (Cheng) of the Zhongyong and the "Dao" of Laozi share striking similarities in their descriptions:

Zhongyong's "Authenticity" (Cheng)	Laozi's "Dao"
Looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard	Looked at and not seen is called Yi; Listened to and not heard is called Xi
Integrates with all things and cannot be left out	The myriad things rely on it to live and do not refuse
Authenticity completes itself	The Dao follows the spontaneity of nature (being so of itself)
Manifest without being seen	When his task is done, he does not claim credit; precisely because he does not claim credit, it never leaves him
Transforms without moving	Teaching without words
Accomplishes without acting	Non-active, yet leaves nothing undone
Broad/profound corresponds to Earth; lofty/bright corresponds to Heaven	The Dao is great, Heaven is great, Earth is great, and man is one of them

From this table, it is evident that the Zhongyong and Laozi use remarkably similar language and reasoning when describing the highest reality.

However, the fundamental difference lies here:

Laozi's "Dao"—is a naturalistic concept. The Dao involves no judgment of good or evil, right or wrong. The Dao generates the myriad things without taking good or evil as its standard. "Heaven and Earth are not benevolent; they treat the myriad things as straw dogs." This "non-benevolence" is not heartlessness, but impartiality.

The Zhongyong's "Authenticity" (Cheng)—is a moral ontology. Cheng is not only "true and non-artificial" (a point shared with the Dao), but it also intrinsically contains moral meaning: "To complete oneself is benevolence (Ren); to complete things is wisdom (Zhi)"—both Ren and Zhi are moral categories.

In short, Laozi's Dao is "value-neutral," while the Zhongyong's Cheng is "value-infused." This distinction marks the fundamental divergence between Daoist and Confucian metaphysics.

This divergence has profound consequences for cultivation:

Starting from Laozi's Dao, the path of cultivation is "reduction"—decrease and decrease again until non-action. It is about removing artificial embellishments and value judgments to return to a natural state.
Starting from the Zhongyong's Cheng, the path of cultivation is "fulfillment"—utmost authenticity and ceaselessness, becoming broad, profound, lofty, and bright like Heaven and Earth. It is about fulfilling the virtues of Ren and Zhi to the utmost so that they become as vast as Heaven and Earth.

Although the two paths diverge, they converge at the highest realm: Laozi's "non-action, yet nothing is left undone" and the Zhongyong's "accomplishes without acting" achieve harmony at the peak. For the supremely sincere person acts naturally without action, and one who acts without action must be supremely sincere.

Section 3: "Authenticity" and Mencius's "Innate Goodness of Human Nature" (Xing Shan)

Mencius's philosophy centers on the "Innate Goodness of Human Nature" (Xing Shan). Mencius, Gaozi (Part 1) states:

"Man's nature is good, just as water naturally flows downward. There is no man who is not naturally good, just as there is no water that does not flow downward."

"The feeling of compassion is the beginning of benevolence (Ren); the feeling of shame and aversion is the beginning of righteousness (Yi); the feeling of deference and yielding is the beginning of propriety (Li); the feeling of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom (Zhi). For man to have these four beginnings is like his having four limbs."

Mencius believed human nature is inherently good—man is born with the beginnings of Ren, Yi, Li, and Zhi. Though these "beginnings" (Duan) are subtle, they can be expanded into complete Ren, Yi, Li, and Zhi.

How does this "Innate Goodness" relate to the Zhongyong's "Authenticity" (Cheng)$8

The relationship is extremely close. The Zhongyong says, "Authenticity is the Way of Heaven" (a phrase originating with Mencius, reflecting the spirit of the Zhongyong), and "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature." The Heavenly Dao bestows nature upon man, so human nature is a manifestation of the Heavenly Dao. The Heavenly Dao is "Authentic," so the nature bestowed by Heaven is also "Authentic"—that is, true, non-artificial, and originally good.

Mencius's "Innate Goodness" can be understood as the manifestation of the Zhongyong's "Authenticity" within human nature:

"Authenticity is the beginning and end of things"—Human nature begins and ends with Cheng, thus human nature is inherently good (beginning with good).
"Without authenticity, there are no things"—If human nature were not good (inauthentic), personhood itself could not be established.
"That which is authentic completes itself"—Human goodness is naturally inherent and does not require external teaching to arise.

However, Mencius also acknowledged that while man's nature is good, it can be "lost" (Fang)—losing one's original heart-mind. Mencius, Gaozi (Part 1) states:

"The trees on Mount Niu were once beautiful, but because they were near a large city, they were cut down with axes. Can they be called beautiful$9 The growth that occurred day and night, the nourishment of rain and dew—surely there were sprouts emerging! But cattle and sheep then grazed upon them, which is why they look thus bald. When men see them looking bald, they assume they never had timber. Is this the nature of the mountain$10 If this is true for the mountain, how can it be that men do not possess hearts of benevolence and righteousness$11 The reason they lose their good nature is like the axe to the wood; if one chops day after day, can beauty remain$12"

Human goodness is like the trees on Mount Niu, originally beautiful, but if constantly hacked away (tempted by external desires, obscured by selfish desires), they become barren. This is not a problem with "Nature" itself, but a result of the external environment and self-indulgence.

This aligns with the Zhongyong's view. The Zhongyong does not discuss the obscuring of human nature (a point supplemented by Mencius), but it states that "cultivating this Way is what we call education" (Xiu Dao Zhi Wei Jiao)—education is necessary to clarify human nature. This "education" is the practice of helping man return to his authentic nature—just as Mencius called it "seeking his lost heart-mind."

Furthermore, Mencius states, "Striving for authenticity (Si Cheng) is the Way of man"—the effort to reach ultimate sincerity is the human task. This Si Cheng is the practical application of the Zhongyong's "the exemplary person values authenticity above all." This effort is not creating Cheng, but returning to Cheng—because Cheng is inherently the foundation of human nature.

Section 4: "Authenticity" and Xunzi's "Rites and Righteousness" (Li Yi)

Xunzi's philosophy contrasts with Mencius's, advocating for "Innate Evil of Human Nature" (Xing E). Xunzi: Human Nature is Evil states:

"Man's nature is evil; his goodness is artificial (Wei). If one follows his nature—that is, his inherent liking for personal profit—contentiousness and strife will arise, and deference and yielding will disappear; if one follows his nature—his inherent jealousy and hatred—cruelty and destruction will arise, and loyalty and trustworthiness will disappear; if one follows his nature—his inherent sensory desires for good sounds and sights—licentiousness and disorder will arise, and rites, righteousness, culture, and pattern will disappear. Therefore, if one follows human nature and complies with human feelings, strife and contention are sure to arise, leading to transgression of bounds and disorder, ending in tyranny. Thus, there must be the transformation of teachers and models, and the Way of rites and righteousness, for people to yield and defer, to conform to culture and pattern, and to attain order."

Xunzi believed that human nature contains inherent tendencies toward profit-seeking, jealousy, and sensory desire. If one follows these naturally, contention, cruelty, and disorder will result. Therefore, the "transformation of teachers and models" and the "Way of rites and righteousness" are necessary to correct these tendencies. This "artificiality" (Wei) of goodness means goodness is the result of human effort.

Xunzi's view seems to create tension with the Zhongyong's "Authenticity completes itself"—goodness (Cheng) is inherent. Xunzi says goodness is artificially created.

However, upon closer reflection, this tension may be resolved.

Xunzi's "nature" (Xing) primarily refers to man's natural desires (desire for profit, sensory pleasure, etc.). These natural desires certainly require ritual and righteousness to moderate them.

The Zhongyong's "nature" (Xing) refers to the "mandate of Heaven"—the embodiment of the Heavenly Dao in man. This "nature" transcends natural desires and points toward the moral foundation of man.

The difference lies in which aspect of "nature" they are focusing on, hence their differing conclusions.

Yet, Xunzi was not ignorant of the importance of "Authenticity." Xunzi: Bu Gou states:

"In cultivating the mind, nothing is better than sincerity (Cheng); when sincerity is achieved, there are no other matters. One only holds fast to benevolence, and only acts according to righteousness. If the sincere heart holds fast to benevolence, it takes form (Xing); if it takes form, it becomes spirit (Shen); if it becomes spirit, it can transform. If the sincere heart acts according to righteousness, it achieves pattern (Li); if it achieves pattern, it becomes illuminated (Ming); if it becomes illuminated, it can change. Changes occurring in succession are called Heavenly Virtue (Tian De)."

"In cultivating the mind, nothing is better than sincerity" (Jun Zi Yang Xin Mo Shan Yu Cheng)—Xunzi acknowledges the central role of Cheng in cultivation. "When sincerity is achieved, there are no other matters" (Zhi Cheng Ze Wu Ta Shi Yi)—when utmost sincerity is reached, no other tasks remain. How similar to the Zhongyong's "utmost authenticity is ceaseless"!

"If the sincere heart holds fast to benevolence, it takes form (Xing), if it takes form, it becomes spirit (Shen), if it becomes spirit, it can transform." This progression from sincerity to spirit to transformation is almost perfectly parallel to the Zhongyong's progression from "Authenticity" to the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" to "transforms without moving."

"Changes occurring in succession, are called Heavenly Virtue" (Bian Hua Dai Xing, Wei Zhi Tian De)—unceasing change is called "Heavenly Virtue." This also corresponds to the Zhongyong's "utmost authenticity is ceaseless."

Thus, although Xunzi asserts "innate evil," he recognizes the central role of "sincerity" in achieving moral realization. His difference lies mainly in the starting point (innate good vs. innate evil), not in the ultimate goal (utmost sincerity, Heavenly Virtue).

Chapter 11: Historical Examples of "Authenticity" and the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits"

Section 1: The Utmost Sincerity of Yao and Shun

Yao and Shun are depicted in pre-Qin texts as models of "Utmost Authenticity."

The Shangshu: Yao Dian states:

"Examine antiquity, Emperor Yao: Reverent, clear, cultured, and thoughtful, sincerely humble and yielding, his light pervaded the four quarters, reaching Heaven above and Earth below. He mastered magnificent virtue to draw the nine relations close. When the nine relations were harmonious, he clarified the hundred families. When the hundred families were enlightened, he harmonized the myriad states. The common people changed, and the world became peaceful."

"Qin Ming Wen Si An An"—reverent, clear, cultured, and thoughtful. "Yun Gong Ke Rang"—sincerely humble and yielding. This character Yun (Yun, truly/sincerely) means trustworthiness, which is Cheng.

Yao's virtue began with "mastering magnificent virtue" (completing the self/benevolence), extended through "drawing the nine relations close" and "clarifying the hundred families," culminating in "harmonizing the myriad states" and "the world becoming peaceful"—order restored. This process is the perfect manifestation of "to complete oneself is benevolence, to complete things is wisdom."

"His light pervaded the four quarters, reaching Heaven above and Earth below" (Guang Bei Si Biao, Ge Yu Shang Xia)—his brilliance spread to the utmost boundaries of the four directions, reaching Heaven above and Earth below. This corresponds to "Broad and profound corresponds to Earth; lofty and bright corresponds to Heaven."

The Analects, Wei Ling Gong states: "Who was it that governed by non-action$13 It must have been Shun! What did he do$14 He merely rectified his own person and faced south!" (Gong Ji Zheng Nan Mian Er Yi Yi)—He merely rectified himself and sat facing south. This is "accomplishes without acting." Shun did not need to do many things; by maintaining his sincere virtue (rectifying himself), the world was naturally governed well.

This "governing by non-action" does not mean doing nothing, but not intervening with artificial means—because the virtue of utmost sincerity naturally produces a transforming effect. This is "transforms without moving, accomplishes without acting."

Section 2: The Sincere Virtue of King Wen

King Wen of Zhou is often presented in pre-Qin literature as the embodiment of "Authenticity."

The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Wen Wang states:

"The solemn King Wen, with constant, bright reverence he attends. Great indeed is the mandate of Heaven, passed down to the descendants of Shang. The descendants of Shang, their brilliance is countless. The High God gave the mandate, awaiting their submission to Zhou. Awaiting submission to Zhou, Heaven's mandate is not permanent. The officials of Yin are swift and alert, worshipping nakedly at the capital. When they offer their naked sacrifices, they wear the formal robes and boots. The able ministers of the King, do not forget your ancestors."

"Mu Mu Wen Wang, Yu Ji Xi Jing Zhi"—The solemn King Wen, continuously making his reverence bright. "Ji Xi"—constant accumulation. This is the realization of "utmost authenticity is ceaseless"—continuously maintaining and accumulating, without stopping.

The Book of Odes, Greater Odes of the Kingdom: Da Ming states:

"Indeed this King Wen, with utmost caution and reverence. Clearly serving the High God, he thus attained abundant blessings. His virtue did not turn away, thus he received the vassal states."

"Xiao Xin Yi Yi"—extremely cautious and reverent. This is "caution when alone." "Jue De Bu Hui"—His virtue never turned away from the right path. "Not turning away" is "Authenticity"—true and unfeigned, never deviating.

What was the verification (Zheng) of King Wen's sincere virtue$15

"Two-thirds of the world submitted to him." This "submission" was not the result of military conquest but the natural influence of King Wen's virtue. This is "transforms without moving"—King Wen did not launch large-scale military campaigns (before King Wu's final conquest), yet the vassal states changed—willingly submitting to Zhou.

The Analects, Tai Bo states: "He possessed two-thirds of the world and still served the Yin dynasty. The virtue of Zhou could be called ultimate virtue, indeed!" (Yi Fu Shi Yin). Possessing two-thirds of the world's power yet still recognizing the Shang dynasty as the sovereign is called "ultimate virtue" (Zhi De)—synonymous with "utmost authenticity."

What was the far-reaching influence (You Yuan) of King Wen's "utmost virtue"$16 The Zhou Dynasty lasted eight hundred years, the longest in Chinese history. King Wen's virtue continued for centuries. This is "long-lasting and boundless."

Section 3: Duke Zhou's Sincerity—The Incident of the Bamboo Casket (Jin Teng)

The Shangshu: Jin Teng records the famous event where Duke Zhou's utmost sincerity moved Gui Shen:

"Two years after conquering Shang, the King fell ill and did not recover. The two dukes said: 'Shall we perform divination for the King$17' Duke Zhou said: 'We cannot yet distress our former kings.' Duke Zhou then offered himself as a substitute, setting up three altars on the same ground. He set up an altar in the south, facing north. Duke Zhou stood there, holding a jade disk and a jade tablet, and addressed Great King, King Ji, and King Wen."

His prayer read: "Your great-grandson, King Wu, is suffering from a severe and violent illness. If you three kings have the duty of a firstborn son to Heaven, let me, Dan, substitute for King Wu. I, as the benevolent elder brother, have abundant talent and many skills, and can serve the spirits. Your great-grandson does not possess as much talent and skill as I, and cannot serve the spirits. You have received the mandate in the Imperial Court, bestowing blessings on the four directions, thus securing your descendants on the earth. The people of the four directions all show reverence and awe. Alas! Do not let the treasure mandate of Heaven fall away, so that my former kings may also have an eternal place of reliance. Now I cast lots before the Great Tortoise; if you grant me this, I shall return the disk and tablet to await your command. If you do not grant me this, I shall set aside the disk and tablet."

"Then three tortoises were divined, all of which were auspicious. When the bamboo strips were opened and the documents examined, they all affirmed this. Duke Zhou said: 'It is established! The King will have no harm. I, the junior, have made a new request to the three kings; I seek only an eternal end to this illness. If you await me here, you can think of this one person me.'"

This passage vividly demonstrates the "Utmost Sincerity" of Duke Zhou.

First: Duke Zhou offered his own body to take King Wu's illness—this is the ultimate expression of "to complete oneself is benevolence." For his elder brother's life, he willingly sacrificed his own.

Second: Duke Zhou's prayer to the former kings (Great King, King Ji, King Wen) was supremely sincere—"I, as the benevolent elder brother, have abundant talent and many skills, and can serve the spirits," implying he was more capable than the King, and suggesting he be substituted. Such sincerity could only come from someone supremely authentic.

Third: All three tortoises indicated an auspicious outcome—the spirits (ancestral spirits) accepted Duke Zhou's request. "The King recovered the next day." This is the realization of "There has never been one who was utterly sincere and yet unmoved"—the sincere heart moved the spirits.

This incident perfectly confirms the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." The Gui Shen are "unseen and unheard" (the former kings are deceased), yet they "integrate with all things and cannot be left out" (the virtue of the former kings still subtly protects the Zhou lineage). Duke Zhou, with utmost sincerity, performed the rites ("set up altars and prayed"), feeling the Gui Shen "overflowing as if above them, as if beside them" (all three tortoises confirmed the spirits accepted the request).

"The subtle yet manifest, the inextinguishable nature of authenticity—it is thus!"—The utmost sincerity of Duke Zhou could not be concealed, resonating with the subtle Gui Shen to produce a manifest effect (King Wu's recovery).

Section 4: The Sincerity of Bo Yi and Shu Qi

Bo Yi and Shu Qi, the two sons of the lord of Guzi, are famous for yielding the throne. The Analects, Gong Ye Chang states: "Bo Yi and Shu Qi did not dwell on past grievances, so resentment rarely reached them." And in Shu Er: "If one seeks benevolence and attains it, what grievance remains$18"

Furthermore, the Analects, Ji Shi states: "Bo Yi and Shu Qi starved to death beneath Mount Shouyang, and the people still praise them today." And: "Duke Jing of Qi had four thousand chariots, but when he died, the people had no virtue to praise in him. Bo Yi and Shu Qi starved to death beneath Mount Shouyang, and the people still praise them today."

Why$19 Because of the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity." The wealth of Duke Jing was external and non-essential; the yielding of the throne, the refusal to eat Zhou grain, and starvation unto death by Bo Yi and Shu Qi were internal and supremely sincere. External things can disappear (horses die and men perish, who remembers$20), but internal authenticity cannot be erased (the people still praise them centuries later). This is "manifest without being seen"—their deeds were not magnificent (starving on a remote mountain), yet their virtue has been praised through the ages. This is "subtle yet manifest"—their subtle actions produced immense, enduring influence.

This is also "long-lasting and boundless"—the sincere virtue of Bo Yi and Shu Qi transcended centuries (from the late Shang to Confucius's time, several centuries passed), yet remains undiminished. Is this not the verification of "utmost authenticity is ceaseless"$21

Section 5: Ji Zha's Refusal of the Throne and the Hanging of the Sword

Ji Zha, a prince of Wu, was also renowned for his sincere virtue, famous for refusing the throne. The Zuo Zhuan records this in several places.

Ji Zha was the youngest son of King Shou Meng of Wu, virtuous and talented. Shou Meng wished to establish Ji Zha, but Ji Zha refused and would not accept. Later, his elder brothers successively became kings, and all wished to pass the throne to Ji Zha, but he firmly refused every time.

The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xiang Twenty-ninth Year records Ji Zha's diplomatic mission, where he observed music in Lu. His commentary on the Odes and music reveals profound insight:

Hearing the songs of Zhou Nan and Shao Nan, he said: "Beautiful! They mark the beginning, though not yet perfected, yet they show diligent effort without complaint."

Hearing the songs of Bei, Yong, and Wei, he said: "Beautiful! How deep! Sorrowful yet not defeated. I have heard of the virtue of Duke Kang and Duke Wu of Wei; these must be the ballads of Wei."

Hearing the song of Wang, he said: "Beautiful! Thinking yet not fearing—is this the eastern Zhou$22"

Hearing the songs of Zheng, he said: "Beautiful! Their subtlety is already excessive; the people cannot bear it. This state will be the first to perish."

Seeing the performance of Da Wu (Great Martial Dance), he said: "How beautiful! This must be the flourishing of Zhou! Is it like this$23"

Seeing the performance of Shao (Grand Harmony), he said: "The virtue is ultimate! It is great! Like Heaven that covers all things, like Earth that carries all things. Even the utmost virtue cannot surpass this. Here it stops! If there were other music, I would not dare to ask for it."

Ji Zha's critique of the Shao music—"like Heaven that covers all things, like Earth that carries all things"—corresponds exactly to the Zhongyong's "Broad and profound is what carries things, lofty and bright is what covers things." Ji Zha, with a heart of utmost sincerity, resonated with the music and heard the virtue of Heaven and Earth within the sounds.

There is also the story of "Ji Zha hanging his sword" (Ji Zha Gua Jian). Although the Zuo Zhuan does not detail this event, it was widely recounted in pre-Qin literature. Ji Zha was on a mission abroad and passed through the State of Xu. The ruler of Xu admired his fine sword but did not ask for it. Ji Zha knew this but, being on a diplomatic mission, could not present it. When he returned later, the ruler of Xu had died. Ji Zha then took off his sword and hung it on a tree near the ruler's grave and departed. His attendant asked: "The ruler of Xu is dead, who shall we give it to$24" Ji Zha replied: "No, that is not right. My heart had already promised it to him. How could I use his death to betray my own heart$25"

"Shi Wu Xin Yi Xu Zhi Yi. Qi Yi Si Bei Wu Xin Zai$26"—My heart had already promised it. How could I use his death to betray my own heart$27 This statement is the ultimate expression of "Authenticity." Cheng is not deceiving one's own heart. If the heart has promised, then regardless of whether the other person is alive or dead, that promise remains valid. This is the realization of "That which is authentic completes itself"—Cheng is a commitment and realization made by oneself to oneself, independent of external conditions.

This incident also echoes the chapter on "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." The ruler of Xu is dead (unseen, unheard), yet Ji Zha still treated him with sincerity (hanging the sword on the grave tree). This is the spirit of "When attending a sacrifice, act as if the spirit is present"—treating the deceased as if they were alive. The sincere heart does not change because of the other party's life or death.

Chapter 12: Further Inquiry into the Metaphysical Basis of "Authenticity"

Section 1: Why is "Authenticity" the Ultimate Reality$28

Throughout the preceding analysis, one fundamental question remains: Why does the Zhongyong posit "Authenticity" (Cheng) as the ultimate reality$29 Why not something else$30

This question can be answered from several perspectives.

Perspective 1: Starting from "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature."

The opening line of the Zhongyong sets the foundation for the entire text: Human nature is bestowed by the Heavenly Dao. Therefore, human nature is a manifestation of the Heavenly Dao. What, then, is the essence of the Heavenly Dao$31

The operation of the Heavenly Dao—the rising and setting of the sun and moon, the succession of the four seasons, the growth of all things—is all "real" (not illusory, not fabricated). The most fundamental characteristic of the Heavenly Dao is "true and non-artificial" (Zhen Shi Wu Wang)—and this is "Authenticity" (Cheng).

If the Heavenly Dao were not "Authentic"—if the movement of the sun and moon were not real, if the succession of the seasons were uncertain—then all things would lack a stable basis for existence. Precisely because the Heavenly Dao is "Authentic," all things have a stable foundation for existence. Thus, "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things; without authenticity, there are no things."

Perspective 2: From Ontology.

What is "existence"$32 The existence of a thing means it is "real"—it is not false or illusory. "Real" is "Authentic" (Cheng). Therefore, all that exists is Cheng, and that which is inauthentic does not exist—"without authenticity, there are no things."

This argument seems circular (Real means Cheng, Cheng means Real), but it reveals a profound insight: "Authenticity" is not an attribute added external to existence; it is existence itself. To say a thing exists is to say it is Cheng (real). To say a thing is Cheng is to say it exists. The two are one and two simultaneously.

This idea, though not articulated in explicit philosophical language in pre-Qin times, is pervasive in spirit.

The I Ching, Appendix III states: "That which is above form is called the Dao (Xing Er Shang Zhe Wei Zhi Dao); that which is below form is called the vessel (Xing Er Xia Zhe Wei Zhi Qi). To transform and arrange it is called change; to push it forward and practice it is called penetration; to raise it up and place it among the people of the world is called enterprise."

"That which is above form is called the Dao"—the Dao transcends form. This "Dao" is another name for "Authenticity." The Dao is the ultimate reality above form, not a concrete object below form.

Perspective 3: From Self-Cultivation.

In the practice of self-cultivation, what is most fundamental$33

It is not the abundance of knowledge—knowledge can be great or small, but being human is not defined by knowledge. It is not the magnitude of talent—talent can be great or small, but being human is not defined by talent. It is not the level of status—status can be high or low, but being human is not defined by status.

The most fundamental quality is: Are you sincere$34 Is your inner heart truly real and non-artificial$35

The Zhongyong states: "To be sincere in nature is called the nature; to illuminate sincerity is called education. If sincere, one is illuminated; if illuminated, one is sincere." Here, "sincerity" (Cheng) and "illumination" (Ming, wisdom, clarity) are linked. But "If sincere, one is illuminated"—sincerity precedes illumination; "If illuminated, one is sincere"—illumination also returns to sincerity. Thus, "sincerity" is more fundamental—with sincerity, illumination naturally follows (a truly sincere person sees things clearly). The ultimate degree of illumination is merely the achievement of sincerity.

Therefore, in the sense of self-cultivation, "Authenticity" is ultimate—all cultivation efforts ultimately converge on the single word "Authenticity."

Section 2: Why is "Authenticity" "Inextinguishable"$36—A Pursuit of Ontology

"The inextinguishable nature of authenticity" (Cheng zhi Bu Ke Yan) is a core proposition of the Zhongyong. But why is authenticity inextinguishable$37 What force makes it "inextinguishable"$38

Pre-Qin thought offers several explanations:

Explanation 1: The Theory of Qi Transformation.

The virtue of Cheng is like the Yin-Yang Qi. Though imperceptible, its function is omnipresent. Although the Yang Qi cannot be seen, when spring arrives, all things sprout—you cannot stop the arrival of spring, because the ascent of Yang Qi is the natural tendency. Similarly, the manifestation of Cheng is also a natural tendency and cannot be prevented by human effort.

The I Ching, Fu Gua, Tuan Zhuan states: "Does Fu reveal the heart of Heaven and Earth$39" The Fu hexagram shows one Yang line at the bottom, with five Yin lines above—a single trace of Yang beginning to rise from the lowest position. Though this Yang is subtle, it represents the "heart" (Xin) of Heaven and Earth (the virtue of ceaseless generation), and it cannot be blocked. This is the symbolic representation of "subtle yet manifest" and the "inextinguishable nature of authenticity."

Explanation 2: The Theory of Moral Resonance.

The sincere heart of man can evoke resonance in others. Mencius, Li Lou (Part 1) states: "There has never been one who was utterly sincere and yet unmoved; if one is not sincere, one cannot move others." A heart of utmost sincerity will surely move others—this movement is not achieved by performing world-shaking deeds, but because sincerity itself possesses a power to move others.

Why does sincerity move people$40 Because all men possess a good heart-mind—they all possess a "feeling of compassion" and a "sense of right and wrong." When a person of ultimate sincerity appears before you, your inherent moral awareness is awakened—you are involuntarily moved and touched. This arising of emotion is not the result of rational calculation but direct resonance between heart and heart.

This is why "authenticity cannot be concealed"—the sincerity emanating from the heart directly reaches the inherent goodness of the recipient's mind, bypassing all rational barriers and worldly pretenses.

Explanation 3: The Ontological Explanation.

That which is real cannot be permanently concealed—this is the logic of existence itself. Falsehood can temporarily conceal the truth, but falsehood is ultimately self-contradictory ("without authenticity, there are no things"), and thus cannot be sustained indefinitely. Real things are self-sufficient ("Authenticity completes itself") and possess the inherent power to support their own existence. Over time (Jiu Ze Zheng), falsehood will eventually collapse, and truth will finally emerge.

This principle is fully demonstrated in pre-Qin political thought.

The Zuo Zhuan: Duke Xiang Fifteenth Year states: "Rivers and marshes accept filth, wildernesses hide disease, fine jade conceals flaws, and rulers harbor disgrace—this is the way of Heaven." Although it suggests that "harboring disgrace" is part of Heaven's way (tolerating imperfection), such "harboring" is ultimately limited—unrighteous regimes will eventually collapse, and the Way of Righteousness will ultimately manifest.

The tyranny of King Zhou may have dominated the world for a time, but he was ultimately overthrown. The virtuous governance of King Wen may not have been immediately obvious, but ultimately "two-thirds of the world submitted to him." This is the historical demonstration of "the inextinguishable nature of authenticity."

Section 3: From "Authenticity" to "The Mean"—The Conclusion of the Whole Text

Finally, we must ask: What is the relationship between the Zhongyong's concept of "Authenticity" and its title, "The Mean" (Zhongyong)$41

The "Middle" (Zhong) in Zhongyong means impartiality, neither deviating to one side nor the other. Yong means constant or ordinary. The Zhongyong states: "When joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not yet manifested, this is called the Mean (Zhong); when they are manifested and all in accord with the proper measure, this is called Harmony (He). The Mean is the great root of the world; Harmony is the universal Way of the world. When the Mean and Harmony are perfected, Heaven and Earth take their proper places, and the myriad things are nourished."

"Mean" (Zhong)—the unmanifested state, which is the original reality of the heart-mind, i.e., the substance of Cheng. "Harmony" (He)—the state when manifested according to the proper measure, i.e., the functional expression of Cheng. "Perfecting the Mean and Harmony" (Zhi Zhong He)—the ultimate state, "Heaven and Earth take their proper places, and the myriad things are nourished"—synonymous with "Broad and profound corresponds to Earth; lofty and bright corresponds to Heaven; long-lasting is boundless."

Thus, "The Mean" (Zhongyong) is the specific manifestation of "Authenticity" (Cheng) in human cultivation and conduct. Cheng is the concept on the level of ontology (the true and non-artificial nature of the Heavenly Dao), while Zhongyong is the concept on the level of cultivation (human action conforming to the central Way). The two are two sides of the same coin.

The supremely sincere person naturally acts according to the Mean—because his actions arise from his true nature, without deviation or excess. Conversely, one who can practice the Way of the Mean must be supremely sincere—because only a supremely sincere heart can achieve impartiality.

Therefore, the two chapters, discussing "The Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" and "That Which is Authentic Completes Itself," while superficially discussing Gui Shen and Cheng, are actually elucidating the metaphysical foundation of the "Way of the Mean." The aim of the entire text can be summarized in one phrase: The Way of the Mean is rooted in the nature mandated by Heaven, embodied in the supremely sincere heart, manifested in the accomplishments of completing the self and completing things, perfected in the virtue that corresponds to Heaven and Earth, and its wonderful function lies in being manifest without being seen, transforming without moving, and accomplishing without acting.