Chapter 10: Comparison of "Authenticity" with Other Pre-Qin Philosophies

Section 1: "Authenticity" and the "Qian-Kun" of the I Ching

The "Authenticity" (Cheng) of the Zhongyong has profound correspondences with the dual structure of Qian (Heaven) and Kun (Earth) in the I Ching.

Creative Power of Authenticity—Corresponding to Qian's "Primal Beginning" (Yuan). The Qian Gua, Tuan Zhuan states: "Great indeed is the Primal Beginning, the beginning of the myriad things, thus encompassing Heaven." Qian Yuan is the beginning of all things. The Zhongyong's "Authenticity is the beginning and end of things" means Cheng is also the beginning of all things. The creative function of Cheng corresponds to the virtue of Qian Yuan.

Carrying Capacity of Authenticity—Corresponding to Kun's "Carrying Things." The Kun Gua, Xiang Zhuan states: "The disposition of Earth is yielding; the exemplary person cultivates deep virtue to carry things." The Zhongyong's "Broad and profound is what carries things"—the broad and profound nature of Cheng corresponds to the virtue of Kun.

Transformative Nature of Authenticity—Corresponding to the Yi's "Constant Change." The I Ching, Appendix IV states: "The Yi, as a book, cannot be distant; it is the Way that constantly changes. Changing without ceasing, flowing through the six positions, without constancy above or below, Yin and Yang interchanging, it cannot be fixed by rules, only adapted by change." This "changing without ceasing" and "adapted by change" resonates with the Zhongyong's "appropriately applied at all times" and "transforms without moving."

Spiritual Wonder of Authenticity—Corresponding to the Yi's "That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit (Shen)." The Appendix III states: "That which is immeasurable in Yin and Yang is called Spirit." This Shen is the Shen in the Zhongyong's "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits." The wonderful function of the Authentic substance is immeasurable, like the unpredictable changes of Yin-Yang—this is the meaning of "The arrival of the spirits, how cannot it be fathomed!"

Thus, the "Authenticity" of the Zhongyong encompasses the full function of the Qian and Kun in the I Ching—creation, carrying, transformation, and spiritual wonder. However, the Zhongyong unifies all these under the concept of "Authenticity," giving it a more focused expression.

Section 2: "Authenticity" and Laozi's "Dao"

The "Authenticity" (Cheng) of the Zhongyong and the "Dao" of Laozi share striking similarities in their descriptions:

Zhongyong's "Authenticity" (Cheng)	Laozi's "Dao"
Looked for but not seen, listened for but not heard	Looked at and not seen is called Yi; Listened to and not heard is called Xi
Integrates with all things and cannot be left out	The myriad things rely on it to live and do not refuse
Authenticity completes itself	The Dao follows the spontaneity of nature (being so of itself)
Manifest without being seen	When his task is done, he does not claim credit; precisely because he does not claim credit, it never leaves him
Transforms without moving	Teaching without words
Accomplishes without acting	Non-active, yet leaves nothing undone
Broad/profound corresponds to Earth; lofty/bright corresponds to Heaven	The Dao is great, Heaven is great, Earth is great, and man is one of them

From this table, it is evident that the Zhongyong and Laozi use remarkably similar language and reasoning when describing the highest reality.

However, the fundamental difference lies here:

Laozi's "Dao"—is a naturalistic concept. The Dao involves no judgment of good or evil, right or wrong. The Dao generates the myriad things without taking good or evil as its standard. "Heaven and Earth are not benevolent; they treat the myriad things as straw dogs." This "non-benevolence" is not heartlessness, but impartiality.

The Zhongyong's "Authenticity" (Cheng)—is a moral ontology. Cheng is not only "true and non-artificial" (a point shared with the Dao), but it also intrinsically contains moral meaning: "To complete oneself is benevolence (Ren); to complete things is wisdom (Zhi)"—both Ren and Zhi are moral categories.

In short, Laozi's Dao is "value-neutral," while the Zhongyong's Cheng is "value-infused." This distinction marks the fundamental divergence between Daoist and Confucian metaphysics.

This divergence has profound consequences for cultivation:

Starting from Laozi's Dao, the path of cultivation is "reduction"—decrease and decrease again until non-action. It is about removing artificial embellishments and value judgments to return to a natural state.
Starting from the Zhongyong's Cheng, the path of cultivation is "fulfillment"—utmost authenticity and ceaselessness, becoming broad, profound, lofty, and bright like Heaven and Earth. It is about fulfilling the virtues of Ren and Zhi to the utmost so that they become as vast as Heaven and Earth.

Although the two paths diverge, they converge at the highest realm: Laozi's "non-action, yet nothing is left undone" and the Zhongyong's "accomplishes without acting" achieve harmony at the peak. For the supremely sincere person acts naturally without action, and one who acts without action must be supremely sincere.

Section 3: "Authenticity" and Mencius's "Innate Goodness of Human Nature" (Xing Shan)

Mencius's philosophy centers on the "Innate Goodness of Human Nature" (Xing Shan). Mencius, Gaozi (Part 1) states:

"Man's nature is good, just as water naturally flows downward. There is no man who is not naturally good, just as there is no water that does not flow downward."

"The feeling of compassion is the beginning of benevolence (Ren); the feeling of shame and aversion is the beginning of righteousness (Yi); the feeling of deference and yielding is the beginning of propriety (Li); the feeling of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom (Zhi). For man to have these four beginnings is like his having four limbs."

Mencius believed human nature is inherently good—man is born with the beginnings of Ren, Yi, Li, and Zhi. Though these "beginnings" (Duan) are subtle, they can be expanded into complete Ren, Yi, Li, and Zhi.

How does this "Innate Goodness" relate to the Zhongyong's "Authenticity" (Cheng)$8

The relationship is extremely close. The Zhongyong says, "Authenticity is the Way of Heaven" (a phrase originating with Mencius, reflecting the spirit of the Zhongyong), and "What Heaven mandates is what we call our nature." The Heavenly Dao bestows nature upon man, so human nature is a manifestation of the Heavenly Dao. The Heavenly Dao is "Authentic," so the nature bestowed by Heaven is also "Authentic"—that is, true, non-artificial, and originally good.

Mencius's "Innate Goodness" can be understood as the manifestation of the Zhongyong's "Authenticity" within human nature:

"Authenticity is the beginning and end of things"—Human nature begins and ends with Cheng, thus human nature is inherently good (beginning with good).
"Without authenticity, there are no things"—If human nature were not good (inauthentic), personhood itself could not be established.
"That which is authentic completes itself"—Human goodness is naturally inherent and does not require external teaching to arise.

However, Mencius also acknowledged that while man's nature is good, it can be "lost" (Fang)—losing one's original heart-mind. Mencius, Gaozi (Part 1) states:

"The trees on Mount Niu were once beautiful, but because they were near a large city, they were cut down with axes. Can they be called beautiful$9 The growth that occurred day and night, the nourishment of rain and dew—surely there were sprouts emerging! But cattle and sheep then grazed upon them, which is why they look thus bald. When men see them looking bald, they assume they never had timber. Is this the nature of the mountain$10 If this is true for the mountain, how can it be that men do not possess hearts of benevolence and righteousness$11 The reason they lose their good nature is like the axe to the wood; if one chops day after day, can beauty remain$12"

Human goodness is like the trees on Mount Niu, originally beautiful, but if constantly hacked away (tempted by external desires, obscured by selfish desires), they become barren. This is not a problem with "Nature" itself, but a result of the external environment and self-indulgence.

This aligns with the Zhongyong's view. The Zhongyong does not discuss the obscuring of human nature (a point supplemented by Mencius), but it states that "cultivating this Way is what we call education" (Xiu Dao Zhi Wei Jiao)—education is necessary to clarify human nature. This "education" is the practice of helping man return to his authentic nature—just as Mencius called it "seeking his lost heart-mind."

Furthermore, Mencius states, "Striving for authenticity (Si Cheng) is the Way of man"—the effort to reach ultimate sincerity is the human task. This Si Cheng is the practical application of the Zhongyong's "the exemplary person values authenticity above all." This effort is not creating Cheng, but returning to Cheng—because Cheng is inherently the foundation of human nature.

Section 4: "Authenticity" and Xunzi's "Rites and Righteousness" (Li Yi)

Xunzi's philosophy contrasts with Mencius's, advocating for "Innate Evil of Human Nature" (Xing E). Xunzi: Human Nature is Evil states:

"Man's nature is evil; his goodness is artificial (Wei). If one follows his nature—that is, his inherent liking for personal profit—contentiousness and strife will arise, and deference and yielding will disappear; if one follows his nature—his inherent jealousy and hatred—cruelty and destruction will arise, and loyalty and trustworthiness will disappear; if one follows his nature—his inherent sensory desires for good sounds and sights—licentiousness and disorder will arise, and rites, righteousness, culture, and pattern will disappear. Therefore, if one follows human nature and complies with human feelings, strife and contention are sure to arise, leading to transgression of bounds and disorder, ending in tyranny. Thus, there must be the transformation of teachers and models, and the Way of rites and righteousness, for people to yield and defer, to conform to culture and pattern, and to attain order."

Xunzi believed that human nature contains inherent tendencies toward profit-seeking, jealousy, and sensory desire. If one follows these naturally, contention, cruelty, and disorder will result. Therefore, the "transformation of teachers and models" and the "Way of rites and righteousness" are necessary to correct these tendencies. This "artificiality" (Wei) of goodness means goodness is the result of human effort.

Xunzi's view seems to create tension with the Zhongyong's "Authenticity completes itself"—goodness (Cheng) is inherent. Xunzi says goodness is artificially created.

However, upon closer reflection, this tension may be resolved.

Xunzi's "nature" (Xing) primarily refers to man's natural desires (desire for profit, sensory pleasure, etc.). These natural desires certainly require ritual and righteousness to moderate them.

The Zhongyong's "nature" (Xing) refers to the "mandate of Heaven"—the embodiment of the Heavenly Dao in man. This "nature" transcends natural desires and points toward the moral foundation of man.

The difference lies in which aspect of "nature" they are focusing on, hence their differing conclusions.

Yet, Xunzi was not ignorant of the importance of "Authenticity." Xunzi: Bu Gou states:

"In cultivating the mind, nothing is better than sincerity (Cheng); when sincerity is achieved, there are no other matters. One only holds fast to benevolence, and only acts according to righteousness. If the sincere heart holds fast to benevolence, it takes form (Xing); if it takes form, it becomes spirit (Shen); if it becomes spirit, it can transform. If the sincere heart acts according to righteousness, it achieves pattern (Li); if it achieves pattern, it becomes illuminated (Ming); if it becomes illuminated, it can change. Changes occurring in succession are called Heavenly Virtue (Tian De)."

"In cultivating the mind, nothing is better than sincerity" (Jun Zi Yang Xin Mo Shan Yu Cheng)—Xunzi acknowledges the central role of Cheng in cultivation. "When sincerity is achieved, there are no other matters" (Zhi Cheng Ze Wu Ta Shi Yi)—when utmost sincerity is reached, no other tasks remain. How similar to the Zhongyong's "utmost authenticity is ceaseless"!

"If the sincere heart holds fast to benevolence, it takes form (Xing), if it takes form, it becomes spirit (Shen), if it becomes spirit, it can transform." This progression from sincerity to spirit to transformation is almost perfectly parallel to the Zhongyong's progression from "Authenticity" to the "Virtue of Ghosts and Spirits" to "transforms without moving."

"Changes occurring in succession, are called Heavenly Virtue" (Bian Hua Dai Xing, Wei Zhi Tian De)—unceasing change is called "Heavenly Virtue." This also corresponds to the Zhongyong's "utmost authenticity is ceaseless."

Thus, although Xunzi asserts "innate evil," he recognizes the central role of "sincerity" in achieving moral realization. His difference lies mainly in the starting point (innate good vs. innate evil), not in the ultimate goal (utmost sincerity, Heavenly Virtue).