A Critical Analysis of 'Shen' and 'Zhi' in the Core Passages of the Guanzi's 'Nei Ye' and an Inquiry into Pre-Qin Theories of Mind and Nature

Section 4: Comparison of "Zhi" among Pre-Qin Thinkers

(1) Zhi in the Analects

The Analects, Yong Ye states: "The wise delight in water; the benevolent delight in mountains. The wise are active; the benevolent are tranquil. The wise are joyous; the benevolent are long-lived." Here, zhī means zhì. Confucius contrasts Zhì with Rén (Benevolence); the characteristic of Zhì is "activity" (dòng) and "joy" (lè)—being skilled at adapting to change makes one flow like water.

The Analects, Wei Zheng states: "To know what you know and to know what you do not know, that is knowledge." True wisdom includes a clear awareness of one's own cognitive limitations.

The Analects, Zi Han states: "The wise are never perplexed" (zhì zhě bù huò). Not being perplexed means that when faced with the changes of all affairs, one can discern right from wrong and make correct judgments without confusion. This directly corresponds to "That which can change a single affair is called Intelligence (Zhi)"—facing any affair, one can adapt and understand without confusion; this is Zhì.

(2) Zhi in the Laozi

Laozi’s attitude towards Zhì is complex. On one hand, Laozi seems to oppose Zhì: Chapter 18 states, "When great wisdom appears, there arises great deceit." Chapter 19 states, "Abandon sagehood and discard intelligence, and the people will benefit a hundredfold." On the other hand, Laozi highly praises a higher level of cognition: Chapter 33 states, "He who knows others is intelligent (zhì); he who knows himself is enlightened (míng)." Chapter 47 states, "Without leaving the door, one knows the world; without looking out the window, one sees the Dao of Heaven."

It is clear that the Zhì Laozi opposes is worldly cleverness, the art of petty maneuvering. The Zhì that Laozi praises is the great wisdom that transcends worldly cleverness—the ability to know others, to know oneself, and to know the world without leaving home. The Zhì mentioned in the Neiye chapter clearly belongs to the latter category.

(3) Zhi in Sunzi Bingfa (The Art of War)

The Sunzi Bingfa, Mou I (Planning Chapter) states: "The general's virtues are: Intelligence (Zhì), Trustworthiness (Xìn), Benevolence (Rén), Courage (Yǒng), and Strictness (Yán)." Intelligence is listed first among the five virtues of a commander. It also says: "If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles; if you know yourself but not the enemy, you will sometimes win and sometimes lose; if you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will succumb in every battle."

The Sunzi Bingfa, Xing Shi (Laying Plans Chapter) states: "Water shapes its flow according to the ground; the army shapes its victory according to the enemy. Thus, there are no constant forms for water, nor constant conditions for an army. Those who can adapt their strategy according to the changing enemy are called Shén (Spirit/Marvelous)!" Note that Sunzi uses the character Shén here! "Adapting strategy according to the changing enemy"—this flexible responsiveness is called Shén. This usage is extremely close to the Neiye's "That which can change a single affair is called Intelligence (Zhi)," and Sunzi's use of Shén to encapsulate this highest level of adaptive capacity further confirms the close relationship between Shén and Zhì in Pre-Qin thought.