A Critical Analysis of 'Shen' and 'Zhi' in the Core Passages of the Guanzi's 'Nei Ye' and an Inquiry into Pre-Qin Theories of Mind and Nature

Chapter 5: "Having grasped the principle of the One, governing the mind resides in the Center, governing speech issues from the mouth, managing affairs is applied to men—then the world will be ordered." — The Path of Order from Inner to Outer

Section 1: Explication of the Original Text

"得一之理，治心在于中，治言出于口，治事加于人，然则天下治矣" (Having grasped the principle of the One, governing the mind resides in the Center, governing speech issues from the mouth, managing affairs is applied to men—then the world will be ordered.)

This line unfolds the Dao of "Adhering to the One" into three levels: governing the mind, governing speech, and managing affairs, ultimately concluding with "the world will be ordered."

"Dé yī zhī lǐ" (Having grasped the principle of the One)—"Lǐ" means principle or law. "Grasping the principle of the One" means understanding and apprehending the fundamental law of the "One."

"Zhì xīn zài yú zhōng" (Governing the mind resides in the Center)—"Zhì xīn" means cultivating the mind. "Zài yú zhōng" means residing within the inner heart/mind. The character "Zhōng" (Center) has two meanings in Pre-Qin texts: spatially, "middle" or "interior"; and valuably, "centrality" or "impartiality." Here, both meanings are taken: the practice of cultivating the mind lies in keeping the inner heart impartial.

"Zhì yán chū yú kǒu" (Governing speech issues from the mouth)—"Zhì yán" means cultivating speech. "Chū yú kǒu" means issuing from the mouth. The "governance" of speech lies in its conformity to principle and impartiality when spoken.

"Zhì shì jiā yú rén" (Managing affairs is applied to men)—"Zhì shì" means cultivating affairs/governance. "Jiā yú rén" means applying to the common people or implementing among men. The "governance" of politics lies in its application to the world's people according to the proper Way, ensuring all attain their due.

"Rán zé tiānxià zhì yǐ" (Then the world will be ordered)—If this is achieved, then the world will be peaceful.

Section 2: Governing the Mind, Governing Speech, Managing Affairs—The Inner Logic of Three Levels

The sequence of these three efforts is not random but reflects a rigorous logical chain:

First Level: Governing the mind resides in the Center (Zhì xīn zài yú zhōng). Everything begins in the inner mind. The mind is the ruler of the body and the source of speech and action. If the mind is not governed, speech and action will be chaotic. If the mind is centrally righteous, speech and action will naturally be righteous. Thus, governing the mind is the most fundamental practice, the starting point of everything.

Second Level: Governing speech issues from the mouth (Zhì yán chū yú kǒu). Once correct thoughts are in the mind, they must be appropriately expressed. "Governing speech" is not merely elegant rhetoric, but the accurate transmission of mental intent. Speech is the bridge between the mind and the external world. If the mind is correct but speech is not, the mind's intent cannot be conveyed; if the mind is correct and speech is also correct, one can influence others and educate the populace.

Third Level: Managing affairs is applied to men (Zhì shì jiā yú rén). After the mind is correct and speech is correct, action must follow. "Managing affairs" is the implementation of inner righteousness through concrete political actions across the world. The "governance" of affairs lies in their conformity to principle and benefit to the people.

These three levels of practice form a complete chain from Inner Sage to Outer King:

Inner Sage (Governing the Mind → Governing Speech) → Outer King (Managing Affairs → World Order)

This logic finds extensive resonance and elaboration in Pre-Qin literature.

(1) The "Eight Items" of the Great Learning (Daxue)

The Daxue states: "Those in ancient times who wished to make their virtue illustrious throughout the world first regulated their states; those who regulated their states first regulated their families; those who regulated their families first cultivated their persons; those who cultivated their persons first rectified their minds; those who rectified their minds first made their intentions sincere; those who made their intentions sincere first extended their knowledge; the extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things. After the investigation of things, knowledge reaches its climax. After knowledge reaches its climax, intentions become sincere. After intentions become sincere, minds become rectified. After minds become rectified, persons are cultivated. After persons are cultivated, families are regulated. After families are regulated, states are ordered. After states are ordered, the world is brought to peace."

The eight items of the Daxue (investigating things → extending knowledge → making intentions sincere → rectifying the mind → cultivating the person → regulating the family → ordering the state → bringing peace to the world) share the exact same logical structure as the Neiye's "Governing the mind → Governing speech → Managing affairs → World order"—all unfold from the inner core outward, from near to far.

However, there is a key difference: The starting point of the Daxue is "investigating things to extend knowledge" (gé wù zhì zhī)—beginning with knowing external things and then reflecting inward. The starting point of the Neiye is "grasping the principle of the One" (dé yī zhī lǐ)—beginning by grasping the internal "One." This reflects the difference in starting points between Confucianism and Daoism: Confucianism leans toward external investigation to attain knowledge, then reflects inward; Daoism leans toward internal adherence to the One and safeguarding the Dao, then extending from the self to things. Yet, the final goal is identical—peace under Heaven.

(2) "Cultivating it in the Person" in the Laozi

The Laozi, Chapter 54, states: "He who cultivates virtue in himself, his virtue will be genuine; he who cultivates virtue in his family, his virtue will abound; he who cultivates virtue in his village, his virtue will extend; he who cultivates virtue in his state, his virtue will flourish; he who cultivates virtue in the world, his virtue will be universal. Therefore, one can observe the world by observing one's self; one can observe a family by observing one's family... How do I know that the world is so$14 By this."

The logic here is: Person → Family → Village → State → World, with the scope of Virtue gradually expanding. "Cultivating it in the person" corresponds to "governing the mind," and "cultivating virtue in the world" corresponds to "the world will be ordered." The logical structure is entirely consistent with the Neiye.

(3) The "Rectification of Names" in the Analects

The Analects, Zilu records: "When the Duke of Wei waited for the Master to take office and govern, the Master said, 'If there should be occasion to govern, the first thing must be the rectification of names (zhèng míng)'." "Rectification of names" means ensuring that words correspond correctly to reality. Confucius's logic chain is: Correct Names → Smooth Speech → Successful Affairs → Flourishing Ritual and Music → Appropriate Punishments → People at Ease. This bears a striking similarity to the Neiye's "Governing the mind → Governing speech → Managing affairs → World order." Confucius starts from "Names" (the correctness of concepts), while the Neiye starts from the "Mind" (the centrality and righteousness of the inner self). Yet both emphasize the role of "Speech" as the bridge between the "Mind (or Name)" and "Affairs." If the bridge fails, the correctness of the mind cannot reach the affairs.

Section 3: Why must "Governing the Mind" reside in the "Center" (Zhōng)$15

The character "Zhōng" (Center) in "Governing the mind resides in the Center" is a key concept in Pre-Qin thought.

The usages of "Zhōng" in Pre-Qin literature include at least the following:

(1) Spatial "Zhōng"—Middle, Interior

The Laozi, Chapter 5, states: "Between Heaven and Earth, is it not like a bellows$16 It is empty yet does not collapse; it moves and constantly emits more. Too many words lead to exhaustion; it is better to guard the Center (shǒu zhōng)." Here, "Guarding the Center" means guarding the empty space in the middle. "Zhōng" here is spatial, meaning the center.

(2) Valuational "Zhōng"—Centrality, Impartiality

The Shangshu, Dayu Mo states: "The mind of man is perilous and subtle; the mind of the Way is subtle and minute. Be exact, be one, and correctly hold the Center (yǔn zhí jué zhōng)." This "Center" is valuational—just right, neither excessive nor deficient.

The Analects, Yong Ye states: "The Mean (Zhōng Yōng) as a virtue—how far does it reach! But for a long time, few have been able to practice it." "Zhōng Yōng" means impartiality, neither going too far nor falling short.

(3) State of "Zhōng"—Harmony, Tranquility

The Guanzi, Xinshu Shang states: "The Mind in the body holds the position of a ruler." The Mind resides in the center of the body, like a ruler in the capital. The "Center" of the mind is both a central position and a state of stable harmony.

"Governing the mind resides in the Center" encompasses all three meanings:

• The practice of cultivating the mind lies in the inner core of the mind (spatial Center)—not seeking externally, but introspecting internally.
• The goal of cultivating the mind lies in Central Righteousness (valuational Center)—making the mind impartial, neither excessive nor deficient.
• The result of cultivating the mind lies in Mental Stability (state of Center)—bringing the mind into a state of harmonious order.

Why must governing the mind reside in the "Center"$17

Because the "One" resides in the "Center." The "One" is the fundamental root of all things, and the root must be at the core, not the periphery. Just as the root of a tree is in the earth, or a ruler is in the capital city, the "One" of the mind is in the center of the mind. To adhere to the "One," one must return to the deepest part of the inner mind—the "Center."

The Guanzi, Neiye chapter previously stated: "The mind stores the mind, and within the mind there is another mind." This "mind within the mind" is where the "One" resides. "Governing the mind resides in the Center" means finding and guarding that "One" in the deepest core of the mind.

Section 4: "Governing Speech Issues from the Mouth"—The Dao of Speech

"Governing speech issues from the mouth" seems simple but carries deep implications.

Pre-Qin thinkers attached great importance to speech. Speech is not merely a tool for communication, but a manifestation of the Dao and an external emission of Virtue.

(1) Confucius on Speech

The Analects, Xue Er states: "Flattering speech and an ingratiating appearance are rare in benevolence." Hypocritical speech harms benevolence.

The Analects, Zi Lu states: "The Master said: 'The Dao of speech is merely conveying the meaning'." The Dao of speech lies in accurately conveying the intent of the mind; it need not be ornate, but it must be true.

The Analects, Yang Huo states: "What does Heaven say$18 The four seasons move, and the myriad things are born. What does Heaven say$19" Heaven does not use words, yet the seasons move and things grow. The highest realm of "governing speech" is transformation without speaking. But for humans, speech is necessary—the key is that speech must accord with principle and issue from sincerity.

(2) Laozi on Speech

The Laozi, Chapter 2, states: "Therefore the Sage dwells in non-action, and practices the teaching without words." "Teaching without words" does not mean absolute silence, but rather not making speech the primary means of teaching, substituting it with exemplary action.

The Laozi, Chapter 23, states: "Sparseness of words is natural. Thus, a strong gale does not last the morning; a violent rain does not last the day." The Dao of speech lies in being concise and potent, not verbose and lengthy.

The Laozi, Chapter 81, states: "Faithful words are not beautiful; beautiful words are not faithful. The good do not argue; those who argue are not good." Truthful words are not beautiful; beautiful words are not truthful. Those skilled in the Dao do not debate; those who debate are not skilled in the Dao.

(3) Guanzi on Speech

The Guanzi, Xinshu Shang states: "What issues from the mouth, when clearly manifested, becomes the craftsman; the craftsman is the knowing one." What is spoken from the mouth is like the craft of an artisan. Just as an artisan's skill arises from profound knowledge, speech arises from profound wisdom.

The core meaning of "Governing speech issues from the mouth" is: Speech is the external expression of the inner "One." If the mind possesses the "One" (the principle of centrality), speech will naturally be central. If the mind lacks the "One" (filled with distracting thoughts), speech will naturally be aberrant. The governance of speech lies fundamentally in the governance of the mind. If the mind is governed, speech governs itself.

But why must "governing speech" be emphasized separately$20 Because even if the mind is upright, improper articulation can cause misunderstanding and chaos. Confucius's discussion on the "Rectification of Names" in the Analects, Zilu already explained this: If names are not rectified, speech is not smooth; if speech is not smooth, affairs are not accomplished. Speech is the bridge between the mind and affairs; if the bridge is broken, the righteousness of the mind cannot be conveyed to the affairs.

Section 5: "Managing Affairs is Applied to Men"—The Way of Politics

"Managing affairs is applied to men" (Zhì shì jiā yú rén)—implementing political affairs among the common people.

The character "Jiā" (加, apply/add) here does not mean "force upon," but rather "extend to" or "promote." Just as Mencius stated in the Mengzi, Liang Hui Wang Shang: "Extend to the elderly of others what you do for your own elderly, and to the young of others what you do for your own young." Extending one's good intentions and virtuous conduct to others is the original meaning of "applying to men."

Pre-Qin thinkers had varying emphases on the Way of managing affairs:

(1) Guan Zhong's Governance

The Guoyu, Account of Qi records Guan Zhong's policies: dividing the state into twenty-one townships, six for artisans and merchants, fifteen for scholars. He also established the system of "Tripling the state and organizing the periphery" (sān qí guó ér wǔ zǐ biān), ensuring that the people had fixed residences and occupations. These political measures ("managing affairs") were all based on a profound understanding of Qi's conditions ("governing the mind") and accurate expression ("governing speech").

(2) Zichan's Governance

The Zuo Zhuan, 31st Year of Duke Xiang records Zichan's story of "not destroying the village schools." Someone informed Zichan: "What about destroying the village schools$21" Zichan replied: "Why$22 The common people retire there in the morning and evening to discuss the merits and faults of the administration. What they approve of, I implement; what they disapprove of, I correct. They are my teachers; why destroy them$23 I have heard that loyalty and goodness diminish resentment, but I have never heard of using might to prevent resentment. Could I not immediately stop it$24 Yet it is like preventing a flood: if the great breach occurs, many people will be harmed, and I cannot save them. It is better to allow small breaches to follow their channels, better that I hear of them and apply medicine."

Zichan's "not destroying the village schools" is a paradigm of "managing affairs applied to men"—political affairs must take the people's opinions as reference, ensuring policies align with the populace's sentiment and benefit the people. This is true "managing affairs."

(3) Laozi on Managing Affairs

The Laozi, Chapter 17, describes the highest level of governance: "Of the best leaders, the people barely know they exist. The next best, the people love and praise. The next, the people fear. The worst, the people despise. When the best leaders do not inspire trust, they are met with distrust. How lofty are their words, how few are the times they speak! When their work is done and their achievements accomplished, the people all say, 'We did it ourselves.'"

The highest realization of governance is when the people are unaware of the ruler's existence. After work is accomplished and success attained, the people all say, "It is natural." This is the manifestation of "Transformation without changing Qi" in governance—the ruler nurtures the people without leaving a trace, just like the movement of Nature.

Section 6: "Then the world will be ordered"—The Destination of the Dao of Governance

"Then the world will be ordered" (Rán zé tiānxià zhì yǐ)—If this is achieved, the world will be peaceful.

The logic here is:

1. Grasping the principle of the One (grasping the fundamental law) →
2. Governing the mind resides in the Center (inner mind is centered and settled) →
3. Governing speech issues from the mouth (speech is accurate and appropriate) →
4. Managing affairs is applied to men (political affairs are suitable and beneficial to the people) →
5. The world will be ordered (universal peace).

The core assumption of this logical chain is: The order or chaos of the world stems from the order or chaos of the ruler's mind. If the mind is ordered, speech is ordered; if speech is ordered, affairs are ordered; if affairs are ordered, the world is ordered. Conversely, if the mind is chaotic, speech is chaotic; if speech is chaotic, affairs are chaotic; if affairs are chaotic, the world is chaotic.

This assumption has deep roots in Pre-Qin thought:

The Shangshu, Dayu Mo states: "The mind of man is perilous and subtle; the mind of the Way is subtle and minute. Be exact, be one, and correctly hold the Center." The essential teaching passed down among Yao, Shun, and Yu was mind cultivation—"Correctly holding the Center."

The Analects, Yan Yuan states: "To govern is to be upright. If you, sir, lead with uprightness, who will dare not to be upright$25" The core of governance is "uprightness" (zhèng)—if the ruler is upright, the people naturally follow.

The Laozi, Chapter 57, states: "Govern the state with uprightness; employ the army with the unexpected; gain the world through non-action." "Govern the state with uprightness" (yǐ zhèng zhì guó)—governing the state with the principle of centrality and impartiality. The root of "uprightness" in governance is the uprightness of the mind; when the mind is upright, governance is upright; when governance is upright, the state is ordered.

Thus, the conclusion "Then the world will be ordered" is built upon a profound foundation of Pre-Qin political philosophy—the governance of the world fundamentally depends on the governance of the mind, and the governance of the mind fundamentally depends on adhering to the One.