Between Emulation and Resemblance: A Fundamental Inquiry into the Microcosm of the Dao of Change

By: The Xuanji Editorial Department

Introduction: A Pivotal Summary of I Ching Studies

In the Rites of Zhou (Zhou Yi), within the Commentary on the Decision of the Appendices, Part II (Xi Ci Xia), lies a passage that has historically been regarded as the keystone for understanding the entire structure of the Zhou Yi:

"爻也者，效此者也。象也者，像此者也；爻象动乎内，吉凶见乎外，功业见乎变，圣人之情见乎辞。" ("The Yao are those that emulate (xiaò) this. The Xiang are those that resemble (xiàng) this; when the Yao and Xiang move within, fortune and misfortune are revealed without; meritorious achievements are seen in change, and the sage's sentiment (qíng) is manifested in the words (cí).")

These brief thirty-odd characters progress layeredly, moving from Yao to Xiang, from "within" to "without," and from "change" to "words," seemingly compressing the entire operational mechanism of the Zhou Yi—how images are abstracted, how trigrams/hexagrams are formed, how fortune and misfortune are determined, and how the sage's intention is revealed—into an extremely concise proposition. What is remarkable, however, is that traditional commentators often stop at a superficial textual clarification, failing to fully unpack the deeper philosophical questions contained within this passage.

Why is the essence of the Yao defined as xiào (emulation)$1 What exactly does "this" (cǐ)—the object of emulation—refer to$2 Why is the essence of the Xiang defined as xiàng (resemblance)$3 What is the distinction between xiàng and xiào$4 What epistemological framework is constituted by "moving within" and "revealed without"$5 How should the proposition "meritorious achievements are seen in change" be understood in terms of the sage's practical logic for governing the world via the Dao of Change$6 Finally, what is the nature of the sage's qíng—is it emotion, actual substance, or volitional intent—and why must it be manifested specifically through the cí (words)$7

These interconnected questions touch upon every aspect of the system. This article attempts to delve deeply into every layer of this classic text from a pre-Qin and ancient perspective, extensively citing original texts from the pre-Qin classics, and combining the interpretations of past sages with historical case studies to launch a fundamental inquiry into the roots of the Dao of Change.

Chapter One: "The Yao are those that emulate this"—The Original Meaning of Xiào and the Generative Logic of the Yao

I. The Semantic Field of Xiào in Ancient Chinese

To understand "The Yao are those that emulate this," we must first ask: What precisely did xiào mean in the pre-Qin context$8

Xu Shen’s Shuowen Jiezi states: "Xiào, is to resemble (xiàng). It is composed of pī (to strike/command) and jiāo (interlacing)." Duan Yucai’s commentary further notes that the core meaning of xiào is "to mimic," "to imitate," or "to present." In ancient Chinese, xiào carries three meanings worth noting:

First Layer: Mimicry and Emulation. As stated in the Book of Documents (Shang Shu), Shuo Ming Shang: "Learning half is learning; concentrating on the beginning and end is mastering the studies." (Xué xué bàn, niàn zhōng shǐ diǎn yú xué.) The essence of learning is the xiào (emulation) of the way of the former kings. Confucius said in the Analects (Lun Yu), Book 17: "I transmit rather than create; I am faithful to and love the ancients." (Shù ér bù zuò, xìn ér hào gǔ.) The term shù (transmit/relate) inherently contains the meaning of "to emulate."

Second Layer: Presentation and Verification. As in the Zuo Zhuan (Zuo Zhuan), Duke Xuan, Year 12: "There was a verifiable result (yǒu xiào)." This refers to an outcome that can be verified. This layer is crucial in the Xi Ci: the Yao are not merely "imitating" something, but are actively "presenting" something.

Third Layer: Effort and Efficacy. As in the Discourses of the States (Guo Yu), Jin Yu: "Efficacious in office (xiào guān zhě)." Although this meaning is not the focus of the main clause, it suggests an inherent proactivity in xiào—it is not passive replication, but active striving toward, investment in, and presentation of a reality.

When these three layers are superimposed, we arrive at a compound understanding of xiào: The Yao, as an active emulation and dynamic presentation of a fundamental existence.

II. What Does "This" Refer To$9 — The Condensation of the Movement of Heaven and Earth

What, then, is the "this" (cǐ) that the Yao "emulate"$10

The Xi Ci Shang already provides a clear clue:

"Therefore, the Yi has the Supreme Ultimate (Taiji), which generates the Two Modes (Liang Yi); the Two Modes generate the Four Images (Si Xiang); the Four Images generate the Eight Trigrams (Ba Gua)."

And again:

"In Heaven, it forms images (cheng xiang); on Earth, it forms shapes (cheng xing). Change is then manifest."

Looking at the preceding context in Xi Ci Xia:

"The greatest virtue of Heaven and Earth is life; the greatest treasure of the sage is position."

Synthesizing these contexts, the "this" (cǐ) points not to any specific object, but to the entire dynamic process of the waxing and waning of Yin and Yang, and the generation of all things between Heaven and Earth.

Han Kangbo’s commentary notes: "Emulate (Xiào) means to follow as a model (fǎ). The sages model the movement of Heaven and Earth and form the Yao." Kong Yingda’s Zhengyi further clarifies: "The Yao are those that emulate the movements of the world." This "movements of the world" (tiānxià zhī dòng) is crucial—it implies that every Yin-Yang change of a single Yao is a microcosm and presentation of a specific dynamic relationship within the cosmos.

Let us probe deeper: Why "emulate" (xiào) and not "create" (zuò) or "make" (zào)$11

This question touches upon a fundamental proposition in ancient Chinese thought: The sage is not a creator, but an emulator. The Xi Ci Shang explicitly states:

"In antiquity, when the King of Heaven, Fuxi, ruled the world, he looked upward to observe the images in Heaven, and looked downward to observe the models on Earth. He observed the patterns of birds and beasts and the suitability of the Earth; taking things from nearby, he observed himself; taking things from afar, he observed other things. From this, he began to create the Eight Trigrams, in order to fully channel the virtue of spiritual intelligence and to categorize the sentiments of all things."

"Looking upward and observing downward" (yǎng guān fǔ chá)—this is a posture of humility. Fuxi did not invent the Eight Trigrams out of thin air; rather, he extracted, imitated, and condensed the symbolic system of trigrams and lines from the order already presented in Heaven, Earth, and all things. Using xiào instead of zuò emphasizes this point: The authority of the Yao does not stem from subjective human construction, but from its faithful presentation of the Dao of Heaven and Earth.

This profoundly echoes Laozi’s view. Chapter 25 of the Tao Te Ching (Laozi) states:

"Man models himself on Earth; Earth models itself on Heaven; Heaven models itself on the Dao; the Dao models itself on nature (zì rán)." (Rén fǎ dì, dì fǎ tiān, tiān fǎ Dào, Dào fǎ zì rán.)

Fǎ (to model) is equivalent to xiào (to emulate). From the Daoist perspective, the legitimacy of all norms derives from the emulation of a higher order. The Zhou Yi, by using the Yao to "emulate this," implements this cosmic-level emulation into an operational symbolic system.

III. The Dynamic Nature of the Yao: Not Static Symbols, But Trajectories of Movement

There is a subtle point here that is often overlooked: The reason the Yao is defined by "emulation" (xiào), rather than "recording" (jì) or "documenting" (zài), is that the Yao is inherently not a static record, but a dynamic emulation.

The Shuo Gua Zhuan states:

"In the past, when the sages composed the Yi, they intended to follow the principles of inherent nature and destiny. Therefore, they established the Way of Heaven as Yin and Yang; the Way of Earth as Softness and Hardness; the Way of Man as Benevolence and Righteousness. Combining the Three Powers and doubling them, the Yi is formed by six lines."

"Combining the Three Powers and doubling them"—Heaven, Earth, and Man, each represented by two lines of Yin and Yang, resulting in six lines. The position of each line corresponds to a specific dimension within the relational structure of the Three Powers. The first and second lines represent the Way of Earth; the third and fourth, the Way of Man; the fifth and sixth, the Way of Heaven. The arrangement of the Yao is not random; it strictly emulates the structural order of the Three Powers.

More importantly, the Yao "changes" (biàn). A Yang line can transform into a Yin line, and vice versa—this is the "changing line" (biàn yáo). It is precisely because the Yao is a dynamic emulation that it can present the process of Yin and Yang waxing and waning between Heaven and Earth, rather than merely leaving behind a static snapshot.

The Xi Ci Shang states:

"Hardness and Softness push against each other, generating transformation." (Gāng róu xiāng tuī ér shēng biànhuà.)

And again:

"Transformation is the image of advancing and retreating. Hardness and Softness are the images of day and night." (Biànhuà zhě, jìn tuì zhī xiàng yě. Gāng róu zhě, zhòuyè zhī xiàng yě.)

The Yin-Yang change of the Yao emulates the alternation of day and night, and the ebb and flow of advance and retreat. This is a process-oriented emulation, not a result-oriented copy. This point is crucial for understanding the Zhou Yi as a whole—the Yi is not an encyclopedia of fixed answers, but a "living" system dynamically presenting the process of change.

Chapter Two: "The Xiang are those that resemble this"—The Dimensions of Xiàng and the Epistemology of Image

I. The Subtle Difference Between Xiàng and Xiàng

Following xiào is xiàng. The text states: "The Xiang are those that resemble (xiàng) this."

At first glance, xiào and xiàng seem synonymous, but careful analysis reveals an important distinction.

Xiào emphasizes the dynamic process of emulation—it is a verbal act.

Xiàng emphasizes the static relationship of similarity—it is a presentation of a state.

In other words, the Yao are "doing" (emulating the movement of Heaven and Earth), while the Xiang are "revealing" (presenting the form of Heaven and Earth). The Yao is the process, the Xiang is the result; the Yao is the microscopic movement, the Xiang is the macroscopic structure.

A crucial passage in the Xi Ci Shang confirms this distinction:

"The sage establishes the hexagrams, observes the images (guān xiàng), and attaches words (xì cí) to them to clarify fortune and misfortune."

Note the sequence here: first "establish the hexagrams" (which are composed of Yao), then "observe the images" (Xiang). When the Yao move, the hexagram is formed; when the hexagram is formed, the Xiang is manifested. This means that the Xiang is the overall pattern naturally presented after the Yao have moved.

This perfectly mirrors what we observe in nature. The image of Heaven—the trajectory of the sun, moon, and stars—is not a single point but a complex pattern revealed after countless dynamic movements are superimposed. Similarly, after the six Yao have each moved, the hexagram they jointly constitute is a form of xiàng—a resemblance to a typical relational structure within Heaven and Earth.

II. The Multiple Dimensions of Xiàng in Pre-Qin Thought

Xiàng (image/resemblance) is an extremely core and complex concept in pre-Qin thought. To deeply understand "The Xiang are those that resemble this," we must examine the multi-layered meanings of xiàng in different contexts.

First Layer: Celestial Images (Tian Xiang). The Zuo Zhuan, Duke Zhao, Year 1: "The affairs of Heaven always present images (tian shì héng xiàng)." Eclipses, comets, and rainbows—these are all celestial Xiang. In the pre-Qin era, observing images to keep time was a paramount political activity. The opening of the Book of Documents, Yao Dian, states: "He then commanded Xi and He, to diligently follow the vast Heaven, to calculate and present the images of the sun, moon, and stars, and respectfully grant the time to the people." (Nai mìng Xi Hé, qīn ruò hào tiān, lì xiàng rì yuè xīng chén, jìng shòu rén shí.) This was the systematic observation and emulation of celestial images.

Second Layer: Material Images (Wù Xiàng). The Xi Ci Shang states: "The sage perceived the intricacy of all under Heaven, and modelled it by its forms, resemblances (xíngróng), and images (wù yí), hence they are called Xiang." Here, xiàng functions as a verb—to use similar forms to analogize the profound complexity of all things under Heaven, making them cognizable and communicable.

Third Layer: Hexagram Images (Guà Xiàng). Each of the eight trigrams has its image: Qian is Heaven, Kun is Earth, Zhen is Thunder, Xun is Wind, Kan is Water, Li is Fire, Gen is Mountain, Dui is Lake. These images are highly condensed summaries of the fundamental elements of the natural world. The Shuo Gua Zhuan details the expansion of these images:

"Qian is Heaven, roundness, ruler, father, jade, metal, cold, ice, great red, good horse, old horse, lean horse, piebald horse, wood fruit."

A single Qian hexagram can symbolize so many things! This demonstrates that Xiàng is not a rigid one-to-one mapping, but rather an associative network based on mutual affinity.

Fourth Layer: Conceptual Images (Yì Xiàng). This is the most abstract layer. The Xi Ci Shang states: "Writings do not exhaust words, and words do not exhaust meaning. Then, is the sage’s meaning not visible$12 The Master said: The sage establishes images (lì xiàng) to exhaust meaning." This passage is profound—language and writing cannot fully convey the sage’s intent, but Xiang can. Why$13 Because Xiang is not linear logical deduction, but holistic intuitive presentation. When a hexagram image is placed before one, a person of understanding can grasp subtle meanings that words cannot convey.

Wang Bi provided a brilliant exposition on this in his Zhou Yi Lüe Li, Ming Xiang (Clarifying Images):

"The Xiang are that which emits meaning. Words are that which clarifies the Xiang. To exhaust meaning, nothing is better than Xiang; to exhaust Xiang, nothing is better than words. Words arise from Xiang, thus one can trace words to observe the Xiang; Xiang arises from meaning, thus one can trace the Xiang to observe the meaning. Meaning is exhausted by Xiang, Xiang is manifested by words."

Wang Bi further suggests the progression of "forgetting the Xiang once the meaning is grasped, and forgetting words once the Xiang is grasped"—this thinking is entirely consistent with Zhuangzi's idea of "forgetting the trap once the fish is caught" (De yú wàng quán). However, we must note: Wang Bi’s "forgetting the Xiang" is a development of Wei-Jin Metaphysics (Xuan Xue). In the original context of the pre-Qin Xi Ci, the Xiang was not a tool to be transcended, but the legitimate vehicle for the sage’s meaning. "The Xiang are those that resemble this"—the Xiang faithfully resembles the Dao of Heaven and Earth; it is an entity worthy of reverence in itself.

III. Why is Xiào Placed Before Xiàng$14

The ordering in the original text places xiào first, followed by xiàng. This sequence holds profound significance.

From a generative perspective, Yao moves first, and Xiang is formed afterwards. The Yao are the basic units composing the Xiang, just as the movement of Yin and Yang is the most fundamental level in Heaven and Earth, and the myriad manifestations (Xiang) are the macroscopic representation of this movement. The Xi Ci Shang states: "One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao." The alternation of Yin and Yang is the most fundamental level; the myriad Xiang are the macroscopic evidence of this movement.

From an epistemological perspective, placing xiào before xiàng also implies a path of cognition: We grasp the overall structure (xiàng) by observing the dynamic process (xiào). Not the reverse. This shares a surprising resonance with the systems theory idea that "process precedes structure."

Chapter Three: "When the Yao and Xiang move within, fortune and misfortune are revealed without"—The Debate on Inside and Outside and the Epistemological Structure of the Dao of Change

I. Multiple Interpretations of "Within" and "Without"

"When the Yao and Xiang move within (dòng hū nèi), fortune and misfortune are revealed without (jiàn hū wài)"—this is the third layer of progression in the passage. The first two layers addressed the essence of Yao and Xiang (what), while this layer addresses how they operate (how).

But what exactly do "within" (nèi) and "without" (wài) refer to$15 Commentators throughout history have offered at least three interpretations.

First Interpretation: Within the Hexagram versus Affairs Outside the Hexagram. Han Kangbo’s commentary suggests: "The Yao and Xiang move within the hexagram; fortune and misfortune are revealed outside the hexagram." This means the Yin-Yang change of the Yao and the composition of the Xiang occur inside the hexagram body, but the resulting fortune or misfortune corresponds to actual affairs outside the hexagram. This is the most direct reading—the construction of the hexagram via divination instruments is "within," and the development of the situation is "without."

Second Interpretation: Within the Subtle and Hidden versus Outside the Manifest. Cheng Yi (Yichuan Yi Zhuan) tended to understand "within" as the subtle, invisible level, and "without" as the manifest, visible level. When commenting on the Kun hexagram, he said: "A family that accumulates good deeds will surely have surplus blessings; a family that accumulates evil deeds will surely have surplus calamities. Good and evil accumulate in the subtle, and fortune and misfortune manifest in the evident." The movement of the Yao and Xiang is like the accumulation of good and evil, operating in the minute details; the revelation of fortune and misfortune is like the descent of blessings and calamities, appearing in the evident.

Third Interpretation: Within the Mind versus Outside the Affairs. This interpretation carries a stronger flavor of Heart/Mind Learning (Xinxue). While Zhu Xi (Zhou Yi Ben Yi) did not explicitly propose this view, later Song dynasty Yi scholars (like Yang Wanli in Cheng Zhai Yi Zhuan) often interpreted "within" as internal self-cultivation, and "without" as external destiny or encounters. In this view, "the Yao and Xiang move within" means that by studying the Yao and Xiang, one cultivates internal insight, and "fortune and misfortune are revealed without" means this internal cultivation ultimately manifests in external fate.

The three interpretations are not mutually exclusive. From the overall perspective of pre-Qin thought, the Second Interpretation is closest to the original intent—it reveals the transformation relationship between the subtle and the manifest, the potential and the realization.

II. The Philosophical Tension Between "Movement" (Dòng) and "Revelation" (Jiàn)

Note the choice of verbs in the original text: "Dòng" within, "Jiàn" (read xiàn, meaning manifest/reveal) without.

"Dòng" (movement) is active and processual—the Yao and Xiang continuously move and change internally.

"Jiàn" (revelation) is presentational and consequential—fortune and misfortune naturally become manifest externally.

This difference in verbs reveals a profound philosophical relationship: The internal "movement" is the cause, and the external "revelation" is the effect. However, the "cause" does not forcibly determine the "effect"; rather, the "effect" naturally emerges from the "cause." This echoes the idea in Laozi, Chapter 16:

"The myriad things operate in concert; through this I observe their return. All things flourish profusely, yet each returns to its root. Returning to the root is called quiescence; this is called the return to destiny." (Wàn wù bīng zuò, wú yǐ guān fù. Fū wù yún yún, gè fù guī qí gēn. Guī gēn yuē jìng, shì wèi fù mìng.)

The movement of all things appears complex, but its underlying law is hidden deep within the root. The operational mechanism of the Zhou Yi is similar: although the change of Yao and Xiang is complex, the revelation of fortune and misfortune possesses an inherent inevitability.

The Xi Ci Shang offers a parallel passage:

"Therefore, the place where the gentleman resides in tranquility is the order of the Yi; what he delights in and plays with are the words of the Yao. Therefore, when the gentleman resides, he observes the Xiang and plays with the words; when he moves, he observes the changes and plays with the divination. Thus, Heaven assists him, and auspiciousness is without detriment." (Jū zé guān qí xiàng ér wán qí cí, dòng zé guān qí biàn ér wán qí zhān.)

"Observing the Xiang when residing" corresponds to the internal, cultivating awareness; "observing the changes when moving" corresponds to the external, responding to the situation. This is the practical unfolding of "within" and "without."

III. Historical Example: The Oracle Encountered by Duchess Mu of Jin in the Kun Hexagram

Let us use a famous historical example to illustrate the operation of "when the Yao and Xiang move within, fortune and misfortune are revealed without."

The Zuo Zhuan, Duke Xiang, Year 9, records a well-known divination:

Duchess Mu died in the Eastern Palace. Initially, they performed divination for her departure and obtained Gen transforming into the Eighth Line of Gen. The Diviner said: "This is called Gen transforming into Sui (Following). Following means departure. The ruler must quickly depart." The Duchess said: "No! In the Zhou Yi, it says: 'Sui, Great success, advantageous, firm, without blame' (Suí, yuán hēng lì zhēn, wú jiù). 'Great' (yuán) is the foundation of the substance; 'Success' (hēng) is the convergence of the auspicious; 'Advantageous' (lì) is the harmony of righteousness; 'Firm' (zhēn) is the foundation of action. If the substance embodies benevolence, it is sufficient to lead others; if the beautiful virtue is sufficient to harmonize with propriety, if benefiting things is sufficient to harmonize with righteousness, if firmness is sufficient to secure action—only then is it 'without blame' when Sui-ing. Now, I, a woman, have participated in disorder; being in a low position, I lack benevolence—I cannot be called 'Great'; I have not pacified the state—I cannot be called 'Successful'; my actions harm my own body—I cannot be called 'Advantageous'; I abandon my position for licentiousness—I cannot be called 'Firm'. Since I lack all four virtues, how can I achieve 'without blame' when Sui-ing$16 I shall take on the negative, can I avoid blame$17 I must die here and cannot depart."

This case is highly insightful. Duchess Mu divined Gen transforming into Sui, and the diviner interpreted it as meaning she could leave. However, the Duchess deeply analyzed the conditions of "Great Success, Advantageous, Firm, without blame" in the Sui hexagram text, concluding that since she lacked the four virtues (yuán, hēng, lì, zhēn), she could not obtain the result of "without blame" even though she had the Sui hexagram.

This is a vivid illustration of "when the Yao and Xiang move within, fortune and misfortune are revealed without": The revelation of the hexagram image is "within," but the judgment of fortune and misfortune must be combined with the concrete situation (revealed "without"). The same hexagram image, for different people or in different circumstances, will present completely different meanings of fortune and misfortune. The hexagram image itself does not automatically determine fortune/misfortune—fortune/misfortune is the result "revealed" (jiàn) when the hexagram image interacts with the concrete situation.

The Duchess’s interpretation demonstrates an exceptionally high level of Yi scholarship. She did not judge mechanically based on the hexagram name but delved into the principles (yi) of the line texts and contrasted them with her own actual circumstances—this methodology precisely embodies the dual operation of xiào and xiàng: the Yao emulate the dynamics of Heaven and Earth, the Xiang resemble the structure of all things, but the final judgment of fortune and misfortune requires combining these two with concrete human experience.

Chapter Four: "Meritorious Achievements are Seen in Change"—The Practical Theory of Change and the Sage's Way of World Governance

I. The Three Levels of "Change" (Biàn)

"Meritorious achievements (gōng yè) are seen in change (jiàn hū biàn)"—this is the fourth layer of progression, shifting from epistemology to the philosophy of practice. The previous layer discussed how Yao and Xiang operate and how fortune/misfortune are revealed; this layer discusses how "meritorious achievements"—the actual results of governance—arise from "change."

In the pre-Qin context, "change" (biàn) possesses at least three layers:

First Layer: Change of Hexagrams and Lines. This is the most direct level. There are changing lines (biàn yáo), resulting in a changing hexagram (biàn guà). By observing the changing lines and the resulting hexagram, one can determine the trajectory of the situation. The Xi Ci Shang states: "To transform and regulate this is called change (biàn); to extend and execute this is called penetration (tōng)." Change is the regulation of transformation; penetration is the execution of change.

Second Layer: Change of Time and Circumstance. Changes in the general trend of the world—dynastic succession, shifts in customs, refinement or loss of institutions. The Xi Ci Shang lists the thirteen hexagrams used for "establishing implements by modeling images" (zhì qì shàng xiàng), showing how the sage created implements and institutions based on the changing times:

"When Fuxi passed away and Shennong arose, he chopped wood to make the sì (dibber) and bent wood to make the lěi (plow). The efficacy of the plow and harrow taught the world, presumably taken from Yì the hexagram. He established the marketplace at noon, gathering the people and goods of the world, exchanging them and then dispersing, each finding what was suitable for them, presumably taken from Shì Kē the hexagram."

From Fuxi to Shennong to the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun, every advancement in civilization was "taken from" a certain hexagram—meaning the sage perceived the demands of the changing times through the hexagram image and, based on this, created new implements and institutions. This is the direct manifestation of "meritorious achievements are seen in change."

Third Layer: Change of Heart/Mind and Nature (Xīnxìng zhī Biàn). The Xi Ci Shang states: "When exhausted (qióng), one changes (biàn); when one changes, one penetrates (tōng); when one penetrates, one endures (jiǔ)." This proposition transcends specific divinatory techniques and historical events, rising to the level of universal life wisdom—when things reach an extreme point, change is inevitable; only by changing can one penetrate through; only by penetrating can one endure. In the Analects, Book 9, when facing adversity, Confucius said, "Heaven has not abandoned the Way of culture!" (Tiān zhī wèi sàng sī wén yě!). This spirit of not abandoning transformation even when exhausted is precisely the practical realization of "when exhausted, one changes."

II. Why "Meritorious Achievements" and Not "Fortune/Misfortune"$18

It is worth contemplating why the text uses "meritorious achievements" (gōng yè) here, rather than "fortune/misfortune" (jí xiōng)$19 Why not say "fortune/misfortune are seen in change" or "meritorious achievements are revealed without"$20

This differentiation in wording reveals two different levels of concern:

"Fortune/Misfortune" refers to the judgment of individual circumstances—personal gain or loss, safety or peril. This is directly "revealed without" from the "movement within" the Yao and Xiang.

"Meritorious Achievements" refers to the actual efficacy of collective endeavor—governing the state and benefiting the world. This is not simply "revealed" from the hexagram image, but is achieved through active "change"—reform, adaptation, adjustment, and refinement.

This distinction is critical. It implies that: The Zhou Yi is not merely a handbook for divining individual fortune, but a classic guiding the sage in adapting to times and establishing achievements.

The Xi Ci Shang states:

"The Yi is what the sage uses to plumb the depths and refine sensitivity (jí shēn ér yán jī). Only by being profound can one connect the aspirations of all under Heaven; only by refining sensitivity can one complete the affairs of all under Heaven; only by being spiritual (shén) can one hasten without haste, and arrive without moving."

"Plumbing the depths" is the profundity of epistemology; "refining sensitivity" is the acute grasp of the precursors of change (jī). The sage uses the Yi to study those subtle changes, almost imperceptible, in order to make appropriate responses before the change fully unfolds—this is the deeper meaning of "meritorious achievements are seen in change."

III. Historical Case: King Wen's Elaboration of the Yi and the Rise of Zhou

The historical case that best illustrates "meritorious achievements are seen in change" is the relationship between King Wen of Zhou and the Zhou Yi.

The Records of the Grand Historian (Shi Ji), Basic Annals of Zhou, records:

"The Western Ruler reigned for fifty years. While imprisoned at Youli, he elaborated the Eight Trigrams of Fuxi into the Sixty-Four Hexagrams."

The traditional account holds that King Wen, while imprisoned at Youli, expanded the Eight Trigrams into the Sixty-Four Hexagrams and attached line texts. Why did King Wen elaborate the Yi while imprisoned$21 Because he was in a state of "exhaustion" (qióng)—his personal freedom was stripped away, and the fate of his lineage hung in the balance. It was precisely in this extreme predicament that he needed to "change" (biàn)—by deeply studying the laws of change governing Heaven and Earth, he sought a path out of difficulty and toward the establishment of merit.

Indeed, the rise of the Zhou Dynasty is a history of "change." In King Wu’s oath before conquering Shang, recorded in the Book of Documents, Mu Shi:

"Now, King Shou of Shang, only listens to the words of his concubines, neglecting the sacrifices to his parents and ancestors, failing to heed his royal uncles and brothers..."

King Zhou of Shang’s "failure to change"—refusing to adapt to the changing times and stubbornly adhering to corrupt governance—led to his downfall. In contrast, the "change" embraced by King Wen, King Wu, and the Duke of Zhou—adapting to the shift in the Mandate of Heaven and creating new systems of rites and music—resulted in the centuries-long achievement of the Zhou Dynasty.

The Xi Ci Xia explicitly asks:

"Did the Yi arise in the Middle Antiquity$22 Did the composer of the Yi suffer anxieties and distress$23 Did it arise at the end of the Yin period and the flourishing virtue of Zhou$24 Was it concerning the affairs of King Wen and Zhou$25"

And again:

"The Yi arose, perhaps at the end of the late Yin and the flourishing virtue of Zhou$26 Perhaps concerning the affair of King Wen and Zhou$27 Therefore, its words are perilous (cí wēi). If the wise observe the text of the Judgment (tuan ci), they will reflect on more than half of their errors."

The Yi was born precisely during the epochal upheaval between Yin and Zhou. Its language is often "perilous" (wēi) because its composer deeply understood the urgency and criticality of "change." "Meritorious achievements are seen in change" is not an empty slogan, but a profound summary of the historical transformation during the Yin-Zhou transition.

Chapter Five: "The Sage's Sentiment is Manifested in the Words"—The True Meaning of Qíng and the Mission of Cí

I. The Pre-Qin Semantics of Qíng: Not Emotion, But Essential Reality

The final and most subtle layer of the passage: "The sage's sentiment (qíng) is manifested in the words (cí)."

First, we must distinguish the meaning of qíng in the pre-Qin context, which does not perfectly align with modern "emotion." Qíng in pre-Qin thought has at least three core meanings:

First: Actual Substance or True State (Qíng shí). This is the oldest meaning. The Zuo Zhuan, Duke Xi, Year 28: "The true nature (qíng) and the false (wěi) of the people are all known." Here, qíng is contrasted with wěi (falsehood/artificiality), referring to the actual state of affairs. Zhuangzi, Discussion on Making Things Equal (Qi Wu Lun): "There is qíng and there is trust; there is non-action and there is no form." (Yǒu qíng yǒu xìn, wú wéi wú xíng.) "Having qíng" means the Dao has its essential reality (qíng shí), and "having trust" means the Dao has its verification.

Second: Innate Nature (Xìng Qíng). Xunzi, On Names (Zheng Ming): "Nature (xìng) is what Heaven provides; Qíng is the substance (zhì) of Nature." In Xunzi's framework, qíng is the substantial content of nature—the innate leanings toward liking and disliking that humans possess. Book of Rites (Li Ji), Yue Ji: "Man is born quiescent; this is the nature of Heaven. Moved by things, he stirs; this is the desire of nature." Qíng is closely linked to xìng (nature), being the natural reaction of nature upon encountering external things.

Third: Volitional Intent or Aspiration (Qíng zhì). The Odes Commentary (Mao Shi Xu): "Poetry is where intention (zhì) leads. In the heart, it is intention; when spoken, it becomes poetry. Qíng moves within and takes form in speech." Here, qíng is the inner will or aspiration, expressed through language (poetry, words).

Returning to "the sage's sentiment is manifested in the words," which meaning is most appropriate$28

Han Kangbo adopts the first meaning, suggesting that qíng refers to "actual substance": When the sage composes the hexagram and line texts, what is contained within them is the authentic substance (qíng shí) of the Dao of Heaven and Earth. Kong Yingda’s Zhengyi further elaborates on this: "The sage’s qíng is manifested in the texts of the hexagrams and lines; it means the sage’s sentiment of concern for governing the world is made evident in the words." Kong Yingda effectively combines the first and third meanings—the sage's qíng is both the true understanding of the Dao of Heaven and Earth and the profound care for governing the world.

I believe this synthetic understanding is most fitting. The sage's qíng is not mere emotional expression, nor is it cold objective record, but rather the sage's profound apprehension of the Dao of Heaven and Earth, combined with a deep concern for the welfare of the world, all condensed into the hexagram and line texts.

II. Why Must the Sage's Sentiment Be Manifested Through Cí$29

Why must the sage's sentiment be manifested specifically through cí (words)$30 Why not through Xiàng (images) or Yao (lines)$31

The answer lies in the unique function of cí. The Xiàng can present a structure, and the Yao can emulate movement, but only the Cí—linguistic expression—can provide concrete judgment and guidance.

The Xi Ci Shang states:

"The text of the Judgment (tuàn cí) speaks of the Xiang; the Yao speaks of the change. Fortune and misfortune speak of their gain and loss; regret and hesitation speak of minor flaws. 'Without blame' speaks of correcting error well." (Tuàn zhě, yán hū xiàng zhě yě; yáo zhě, yán hū biàn zhě yě. Jí xiōng zhě, yán hū qí shī dé yě; huǐ lìn zhě, yán hū qí xiǎo cī yě. Wú jiù zhě, shàn bǔ guò yě.)

The Cí is the "speaking" about the object; it is the "speaking" about change; it is the explicit judgment of fortune, misfortune, regret, hesitation, and being blameless. Without the Cí, the hexagram image is merely an open-ended pattern, allowing for arbitrary interpretation by anyone. It is the sage's Cí that provides a specific direction for the hexagram image—in which circumstances is it fortunate, in which is it unfortunate, in which is there regret or hesitation, and in which is it blameless.

Take the Qian hexagram as an example:

Chujiu: "Latent Dragon; do not act." (Qián lóng wù yòng.) Jiuer: "The Dragon appears in the field; it is advantageous to see a Great Man." (Jiàn lóng zài tián, lì jiàn dà rén.) Jiujiu: "The gentleman is ceaselessly diligent throughout the day, cautious even at dusk; without blame." (Jūn zǐ zhōng rì qián qián, xī tì ruò lì, wú jiù.) Jiǔsì: "Perhaps leaping up while still in the abyss; without blame." (Huò yuè zài yuān, wú jiù.) Jiǔwǔ: "Flying Dragon in the sky; it is advantageous to see a Great Man." (Fēi lóng zài tiān, lì jiàn dà rén.) Shangjiǔ: "Arrogant Dragon, regret ensues." (Kàng lóng yǒu huǐ.) Yongjiu: "Seeing the multitude of dragons without a head; auspiciousness." (Jiàn qún lóng wú shǒu, jí.)

The line texts for the six lines display a complete life trajectory: from latent to visible, from leaping to flying, from flying to arrogance. Each line text contains the sage's judgment—"do not act," "advantageous to see a Great Man," "without blame," "regret ensues"—these judgments are not arbitrary but are crystallized from the sage's profound understanding of how the "Dragon Virtue" should comport itself at different stages.

"Latent Dragon, do not act"—The sage’s sentiment is a caution for self-preservation when talent has not yet met its opportunity. "Arrogant Dragon, regret ensues"—The sage’s sentiment is a warning against conceit once success has been achieved. These Cí are not only descriptions of a particular situation but also profound admonitions from the sage to later generations.

The Wenyan Zhuan commentary on "Arrogant Dragon, regret ensues" is especially brilliant:

"The meaning of 'Arrogant' (kàng) is knowing how to advance but not how to retreat, knowing how to survive but not how to perish, knowing how to gain but not how to lose. Can there be anyone but the sage! Who knows advancing and retreating, surviving and perishing, without losing the correct path$32 Can there be anyone but the sage!"

This passage fully demonstrates the implication of "the sage's sentiment is manifested in the words": the sage uses the line texts to admonish the world—the essence of "arrogance" is knowing only how to advance, not how to retreat. Only one who knows both advancing and retreating, both surviving and perishing, is a true sage. What is contained in the Cí is not just a judgment about a specific situation, but the sage's deep insight into the entire human process of advancing and retreating.

IV. Reconsidering "Manifestation" (Jiàn)

One final detail is worth noting: the text uses the character "reveal/manifest" (jiàn, read xiàn) three times consecutively—"fortune and misfortune are revealed (jiàn) without," "meritorious achievements are seen (jiàn) in change," and "the sage's sentiment is manifested (jiàn) in the words." The final jiàn should also be read as xiàn.

Why does it not say the sage’s sentiment "is contained" (zài) in the words, or "resides" (cún) in the words, or is "entrusted" (jì) to the words, but specifically says it is "manifested" (jiàn) in the words$33

The use of "manifested" (xiàn) implies a process where something originally hidden is later revealed. The sage's sentiment is originally profound and inscrutable—Confucius said in the Analects, Book 17: "What does Heaven say$34 The four seasons proceed, and the myriad things are born. What does Heaven say$35" The sage is like Heaven; their sentiment is not easily shown. However, through the hexagram and line texts, this hidden sentiment is "revealed" (jiàn)—it manifests to those who study with diligence.

This forms a perfect resonance with another famous saying in the Xi Ci Shang:

"The Master said: 'Writings do not exhaust words, and words do not exhaust meaning.' If so, is the sage’s meaning not visible$36 The Master said: 'The sage establishes images to exhaust meaning, establishes hexagrams to exhaust the sincerity and falsehood of things, and attaches words to exhaust their expression.'"

"Establishing images to exhaust meaning"—the Xiang exhausts the sage's meaning. "Attaching words to exhaust expression"—the Cí exhausts the sage's words. "Establishing hexagrams to exhaust the sincerity and falsehood of things"—the hexagrams exhaust the reality and deception of all under Heaven. But after all this "exhausting," the sage's "sentiment" (qíng)—that more fundamental care and apprehension—is finally "manifested" (jiàn) through the Cí.

It is "manifestation" (jiàn), not "exhaustion" (jìn). "Exhaustion" implies complete depletion, while "manifestation" suggests something revealed without necessarily being fully depleted. This subtle difference tells us that: The hexagram and line texts can reveal a part of the sage’s sentiment, but whether the sage's sentiment can ever be completely exhausted$37 That is another question. This leaves eternal space for continuous interpretation and deepening by successive generations.

Chapter Six: The Overall Structure of Four Layers of Progression—From Emulation to the Manifestation of Sentiment

I. Re-examining the Logical Structure of the Entire Passage

Now let us step back and examine the four layered progressions of this passage from an overall perspective:

These four steps move from the microcosm to the macrocosm, from ontology to practice, from the Dao of Heaven to human affairs, constituting a complete cognitive ladder:

Step One: Understand the essence of the Yao—it is the emulation of the movement of Heaven and Earth.Step Two: Understand the essence of the Xiang—it is the resemblance to the form of Heaven and Earth.Step Three: Understand the operation of Yao and Xiang—internal change generates external revelation of fortune and misfortune.Step Four: Understand the ultimate destination of the Dao of Change—achievements are realized through change, and the sage's sentiment is revealed through the words.

These four steps can also be understood as four introductory levels for comprehending the Zhou Yi:

Beginners first learn the "Yao"—understanding the basic meaning and rules of Yin and Yang lines. Then they learn the "Xiang"—understanding the symbolic system of the eight trigrams and sixty-four hexagrams. Next, they learn the "Principle of Inside and Outside"—understanding the correspondence between the hexagram image and reality. Finally, they grasp "Change and Words"—comprehending the sage's wisdom for adapting to times and savoring the deep care contained within the words.

II. Intertextuality with Other Core Propositions in the Xi Ci

This passage does not exist in isolation; it forms a rich intertextual relationship with other core propositions in the Xi Ci.

Intertextuality with "One Yin and one Yang is called the Dao": The "this" (cǐ) in "The Yao emulate this" ultimately refers to the "Dao of one Yin and one Yang." The Yin-Yang duality of the Yao is precisely the emulation of this fundamental Dao.

Intertextuality with "That which is above form is called the Dao; that which is below form is called the Implement": The Xiang acts as a mediator between "Dao" and "Implement"—the Xiang is not purely metaphysical (Dao), nor is it purely physical (Implement), but a bridge between the two. "The Xiang resemble this"—the Xiang resembles the Dao, while simultaneously resembling the Implement.

Intertextuality with "Manifested in Benevolence, Hidden in Use": "Yao and Xiang move within" corresponds to "hidden in use"—the mechanism of operation that is deeply concealed. "Fortune and misfortune are revealed without" corresponds to "manifested in benevolence"—the educational function that is revealed. The Xi Ci Shang states: "Manifested in benevolence, hidden in use, setting the myriad things in motion without sharing the sage’s sorrow—this is the height of magnificent virtue and great achievement!" The Dao of Heaven "sets the myriad things in motion without sharing the sage’s sorrow"—Heaven moves things without a conscious mind, but the sage does have sorrow—sorrow over the order and chaos of the world, and the safety and peril of the people. This "sorrow" is the "sage's sentiment."

Intertextuality with "Change as Action, Inscrutability as Spirit": The "change" (biàn) in "meritorious achievements are seen in change" is the same "change" in "Change constitutes action" (tōng biàn zhī wèi shì). To change and penetrate, to penetrate and endure, to endure and achieve merit—this is the basic logic of the sage’s engagement with the world.

III. Echoes in the Thought of Various Pre-Qin Schools

The philosophical framework revealed in this passage not only had a profound influence within Confucianism but also found echoes in other pre-Qin schools of thought.

Echoes in Confucianism: When Confucius discussed the Yi, his focus ultimately rested on the adaptability of human affairs and the cultivation of morality. The Analects, Book 17, records: "The Master said: 'If I were given several more years, say fifty, to study the Yi, I could avoid great error.'" (Jiā wǒ shù nián, wǔ shí yǐ xué Yì, kě yǐ wú dà guò yǐ.) "Avoiding great error" is not striving for great wealth or status, but avoiding major mistakes. This is the practical interpretation of "fortune and misfortune are revealed without"—the purpose of studying the Yi is to make the best possible judgments amidst the complex changes of human affairs, thus avoiding error.

Echoes in Daoism: Laozi, Chapter 40, states: "Reversal is the movement of the Dao. Weakness is the function of the Dao." (Fǎn zhě Dào zhī dòng. Ruò zhě Dào zhī yòng.) "Reversal" is the fundamental mode of the Dao's movement—all things move toward their opposite. This is entirely consistent with the logic of Yin and Yang shifting in the Zhou Yi. The reason the Yao must "emulate" the movement of Heaven and Earth is that the core law of that movement is the mutual transformation of Yin and Yang. Laozi’s "Reversal is the movement of the Dao" and the Xi Ci's "Hardness and Softness push against each other, generating transformation" can be said to share the same origin, though expressed differently.

Echoes in Military Thought: In Sunzi’s Art of War, Chapter on Weaknesses and Strengths (Xu Shi): "War has no constant formation; water has no constant shape. The ability to adapt to the enemy's changes and secure victory is called spiritual power (shén)." "Adapting to the enemy's changes" (yīn dí biàn huà)—this is the military interpretation of "meritorious achievements are seen in change." The essence of military strategy lies in changing according to the time and situation, without clinging to fixed formations or tactics. Sunzi’s shén (spiritual power/marvel) shares a spiritual kinship with the Xi Ci's "Inscrutability of Yin and Yang is called spirit (shén)."

Echoes in the Logicians and Mohists: Although the School of Names (Logicians) and Mohism are not primarily known for Yi studies, their focus on the "relationship between names and actualities" (míng shí) has a deep connection to the proposition "The Xiang are those that resemble this." Whether a name corresponds faithfully to the actual state of things—whether the name truly "resembles" the thing's reality—was a universal concern in pre-Qin thought. Hui Shi's "Ten Propositions," including seemingly paradoxical claims (like "Heaven and Earth are low; mountains and swamps are level"), were actually challenging the reliability of everyday "images" (Xiang)—does the Xiang we see truly "resemble" the thing as it is$38

Chapter Seven: Fundamental Inquiry from an Ancient Perspective—How Are Hexagram and Line Symbols Possible$39

I. The Original Unity of Symbol and Reality

From the perspective of ancient thought, the two sentences, "The Yao are those that emulate this. The Xiang are those that resemble this," presuppose a fundamental belief: Man-made symbolic systems can faithfully emulate and resemble the true order of nature.

This belief might require argumentation today, but in the context of ancient Chinese thought, it was almost self-evident. Why$40

Because the ancient Chinese understanding of symbols was distinctly different from later eras. In the ancient context, a symbol was not an arbitrarily assigned marker by human convention, but an essential pattern directly extracted from the cosmic order. Fuxi painted the Eight Trigrams after observing celestial images and geographical models—the Eight Trigrams were not "invented" by Fuxi, but "discovered" by him in Heaven and Earth. This is akin to an archaeologist not "creating" a fossil, but "excavating" it from the geological strata.

The Xi Ci Shang states:

"The River brought forth the Map (Tu); the Luo brought forth the Script (Shu). The sages took them as models." (Hé chū Tú, Luò chū Shū, shèng rén zé zhī.)

The River Map and Luo Script—these were symbols actively presented by Heaven and Earth to humanity. The sages did not create these symbols; they "followed them as models" (zé zhī). Under this concept, there is no chasm between symbol and reality: The symbol is the reality presenting itself.

This "Symbol-Reality Unification Theory" has deep roots in pre-Qin thought. The Zuo Zhuan, Duke Zhao, Year 2, records the exclamation of Han Xuanzi after viewing the archives preserved in Lu: "The Rites of Zhou are all here in Lu!" For Han Xuanzi, the documents (symbols) were not a "description" of the Rites of Zhou, but the "presence" of the Rites of Zhou itself. Similarly, the hexagram and line symbols were not a "description" of the Dao of Heaven and Earth, but the "presence" of that Dao.

II. Contrast of Two Symbolic Generation Methods: Scapulimancy vs. Yarrow Stalk Divination

To further understand the meaning of xiào (emulation) and xiàng (resemblance), we can contrast the two methods of divination: turtle shell scapulimancy (guī bǔ) and yarrow stalk divination (shī shàn).

In turtle shell divination, heat is applied to the shell to create cracks (zhào), and the interpretation of the crack patterns determines fortune and misfortune. In scapulimancy, the symbol generation is physical—fire burns the bone, creating cracks that are beyond human control.

Yarrow stalk divination (or later, coin tossing) generates Yin and Yang lines according to specific mathematical procedures, which are then assembled into hexagrams. In yarrow divination, the symbol generation is mathematical—through steps like dividing the stalks, counting in fours, and setting aside the remainder (fēn, shiè, guī qí), random numbers are converted into definite Yin and Yang lines.

The Xi Ci Shang states:

"The Great Elaboration numbers fifty; its use is forty-nine. Divide into two to resemble the Two Modes; hang one aside to resemble the Three Powers; count by fours to resemble the Four Seasons; set aside the remainder to resemble the intercalary month. In five years, there are two intercalary months, hence only after setting aside twice is one hung aside." (Dà yàn zhī shù wǔ shí, qí yòng sì shí yǒu jiǔ...)

Note the repeated use of the character xiàng (resemble/model) in this passage: "xiàng liǎng"—resembling the division into Yin and Yang; "xiàng sān"—resembling the Three Powers (Heaven, Earth, Man); "xiàng sì shí"—resembling the Four Seasons; "xiàng rùn"—resembling the adjustment for the intercalary month. The procedural steps of yarrow divination itself constitute a symbolic system—each operation emulates a specific aspect of Heaven and Earth's operation.

This contrasts sharply with scapulimancy. In turtle shell divination, the symbol (the crack pattern) is directly produced by natural force; humans are merely passive interpreters. In yarrow divination, the symbol (the Yao) is actively generated by humans through emulating the celestial process; humans are active participants. "Yao are those that emulate this" (Xiào)—the subjectivity contained within this word aligns perfectly with the active operation of yarrow divination.

From an archaeological perspective, the abundance of oracle bone inscriptions unearthed at Yin Ruins indicates that the Shang dynasty relied primarily on scapulimancy. The tradition represented by the Zhou Yi, based on yarrow divination, is more closely associated with Zhou culture. The shift from scapulimancy to yarrow divination was not merely a change in divinatory technology but a profound transformation in epistemology—from passively receiving the Heaven's will via "cracks" (zhào) to actively emulating the Dao of Heaven and Earth via the "Yao." The philosophical significance of this transformation is precisely what is carried by the word xiào.

Chapter Eight: Synthesis and Differentiation of Past Sages' Interpretations

I. Interpretations of the Han Dynasty Image and Number School

The mainstream of Han Dynasty Yi studies focused on Image and Number (Xiàng Shù). Han scholars, represented by Yu Fan, Xun Shuang, and Jing Fang, emphasized the specific correspondence between the Yao's image-number relations and reality when interpreting "The Yao are those that emulate this."

In his commentary, Yu Fan focused on techniques such as hexagram transformation, inner trigrams (hūtǐ), and the Nà Ji system (attributing lines to the five elements and celestial stems/earthly branches). He argued that "emulating this" referred to the correspondence between the Yin/Yang attribute of a line in a specific position and the concrete things in Heaven and Earth. For example, the first line emulates the beginning of Earth; the second, the completion of Earth; the third, the beginning of Man; the fourth, the completion of Man; the fifth, the beginning of Heaven; and the top line, the completion of Heaven. The Yin/Yang nature and position of each line emulate the specific state of movement within the Three Powers.

The contribution of Han numerical studies was to ground the meaning of xiào in concrete, operational correspondences. However, its limitation was an overemphasis on the technical details of image and number, sometimes obscuring the deeper philosophical implications carried by the word xiào.

II. Interpretations of Wang Bi's Principle and Meaning School

Wang Bi (226–249 CE) was an innovator in Wei-Jin Yi scholarship who reinterpreted this passage from a perspective of Principle and Meaning (Yili).

For Wang Bi, xiào and xiàng should not be understood as one-to-one correspondence with specific material images, but as abstract presentations of structural principles. His concept of "forgetting the Xiang once the meaning is grasped" in Zhou Yi Lüe Li, Ming Xiang (Clarifying Images), while controversial later on, contained a core insight: The Xiang is established to convey meaning; if one clings too tightly to the specific details of the Xiang while forgetting the meaning it intends to convey, one is abandoning the root for the branches.

Wang Bi's interpretation is particularly illuminating for "the sage's sentiment is manifested in the words." He argued that the sage's qíng is not an exhaustive description of all phenomena in Heaven and Earth, but a principled judgment regarding the appropriate ethical position (shí wèi) associated with each hexagram line. The sage focuses on the "time" (shí)—what must be done at what time—rather than the "image" (Xiang)—what thing this hexagram resembles.

III. Interpretations of the Cheng-Zhu School of Neo-Confucianism

Cheng Yi, in his Yichuan Yi Zhuan, integrated both "emulation" (xiào) and "resemblance" (xiàng) into the framework of the Theory of Heaven (Tian Lun). He argued that the reason the Yao can emulate the movement of Heaven and Earth is that the principle of Heaven (the "Principle" (Li) in the concept of "One Principle manifested in myriad forms") permeates both the natural world and the symbolic system. The correspondence between the hexagram/line symbols and the myriad things in Heaven and Earth is not due to some mysterious causal link, but because they both share the same "Heavenly Principle" (Tian Li).

Zhu Xi’s annotation in the Zhou Yi Ben Yi on this passage is concise:

"Emulate (Xiào), means to follow by analogy. Resemble (Xiàng), means to imitate. These both refer to the natural principles of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things."

Zhu Xi emphasized the "natural principles of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things"—this expands the reference of "this" (cǐ) from specific celestial and terrestrial images to universal principles. For Zhu Xi, the Yao do not emulate one specific thing, but the universal Principle that runs through all things.

IV. Interpretations of Wang Fuzhi's School of Practical Learning

Wang Fuzhi (1619–1692) offered a distinctive interpretation in his Zhou Yi Nei Zhuan and Wai Zhuan. Wang Fuzhi opposed Wang Bi’s theory of "forgetting the Xiang," arguing that the Xiang is not a tool to be transcended, but where the Principle resides. Without the Xiang, the Principle has no place to rest.

Wang Fuzhi particularly stressed the practical meaning of xiào:

"Emulation (Xiào) does not mean empty hypothetical discussion; rather, it means that there is an actual event, and we use it to clarify the concept."

That is to say, the xiào of the Yao is not an empty analogy, but a faithful presentation of actually existing things and relationships. This interpretation carries a strong materialist flavor—the effectiveness of the symbolic system derives from its faithful reflection of the material world.

Wang Fuzhi also provided a historically philosophical reading of "meritorious achievements are seen in change." He argued that "meritorious achievements" are not fixed standards invariant over time, but are constantly renewed as the era changes. The standard for achievement in the Shang dynasty differed from that of the Zhou; the Zhou’s differed from that of the Spring and Autumn period—every era has its specific "change," and the meaning of meritorious achievement changes accordingly. This historical understanding elevates "meritorious achievements are seen in change" beyond mere divinatory technique to an important proposition in the philosophy of history.

Chapter Nine: Concluding Reflection—The Eternal Inquiry Between Emulation and Resemblance

I. Why is this Passage Important$41

Reviewing the analysis, it becomes clear why the passage, "The Yao are those that emulate this. The Xiang are those that resemble this; when the Yao and Xiang move within, fortune and misfortune are revealed without; meritorious achievements are seen in change, and the sage's sentiment is manifested in the words," is so significant: it answers four fundamental questions about the Zhou Yi in extremely concise language:

Question 1: What are the basic elements of the Zhou Yi (Yao)$42 —They are the emulation (xiào) of the movement of Heaven and Earth. Question 2: What is the mode of presentation of the Zhou Yi (Xiang)$43 —It is the resemblance (xiàng) to the form of Heaven and Earth. Question 3: How does the Zhou Yi operate$44 —Internal movement of Yao and Xiang generates the external revelation of fortune and misfortune. Question 4: What is the ultimate destination of the Zhou Yi$45 —Achievements are realized through change, and the sage's sentiment is revealed through the words.

These four questions cover four dimensions: ontology (what are Yao and Xiang$46), epistemology (how do we cognize fortune and misfortune from Yao and Xiang$47), practical theory (how are achievements established through adaptability$48), and axiology (how is the sage's concern conveyed$49). It is astonishing that a passage of just over thirty characters constructs such a complete philosophical framework—a testament to the summarizing power of pre-Qin thinkers.

II. Three Unresolved Inquiries

However, deep analysis also raises several unresolved questions worth further consideration:

The First Inquiry: The Limit of Emulation. The Yao "emulate" the movement of Heaven and Earth—but the movement of Heaven and Earth is infinite and infinitely subtle. Can sixty-four hexagrams and three hundred eighty-four lines possibly exhaust all of it$50 The Xi Ci Shang admits: "In its vastness and readiness, the Yi contains the Way of Heaven, the Way of Man, and the Way of Earth." "Vast and ready" (guǎng dà xī bèi) is an ideal declaration, but logically, can a finite symbolic system exhaust infinite cosmic change$51 This is a profound epistemological problem. Perhaps the answer is that the Yao do not seek to exhaust every detail of Heaven's movement, but rather to capture its fundamental patterns and structures—just as a mathematical formula expresses a universal quantitative relationship without listing every specific value.

The Second Inquiry: The Objectivity of Fortune and Misfortune. "Fortune and misfortune are revealed without"—are fortune and misfortune objectively "out there," or do they depend on the interpreter's subjective judgment$52 Duchess Mu’s case already implies an answer: fortune and misfortune are not inherent qualities of the hexagram image, but judgments that emerge from the interaction between the hexagram image and the concrete situation. If this is the case, then different interpreters faced with the same hexagram image might make completely different judgments of fortune and misfortune—does this mean the "objectivity" of the Zhou Yi is actually an "intersubjectivity"$53

The Third Inquiry: The Transmissibility of the Sage's Sentiment. "The sage's sentiment is manifested in the words"—but can later generations truly comprehend the sage's sentiment fully through the words$54 The Xi Ci Shang states, "Writings do not exhaust words, and words do not exhaust meaning." If words cannot exhaust meaning, then the Cí cannot completely exhaust the sage’s sentiment either. What the Cí can "manifest" (jiàn) is only one aspect of the sage's sentiment. This implies that the interpretation of hexagram and line texts is always an open process—every generation can and should discover new meaning within the Cí. This might be the fundamental reason why the Zhou Yi has retained its vitality across millennia.

III. Contemporary启示 of Emulation and Resemblance

Finally, let us consider the contemporary relevance of this passage.

In an age of information explosion and symbolic proliferation, the proposition of "emulation" and "resemblance" carries a particularly sharp relevance. We create and consume massive amounts of symbols daily—text, images, data, algorithms—but are these symbols truly "emulating" and "resembling" any real order$55 Or are they merely empty markers floating in the void, disconnected from any reality$56

When the ancient sages drew trigrams and attached texts, they maintained a humble reverence for the Dao of Heaven and Earth. Their symbolic system was one of "emulation" and "resemblance"—a faithful presentation mirroring a greater order. The way contemporary people create symbols is often through "making" (zuò) and "constructing" (zào)—building arbitrarily based on subjective will. When symbols cease to emulate any real order, and images cease to resemble any true existence, the symbol loses its proper function—it no longer "emulates this," nor does it "resemble this."

Perhaps rereading, "The Yao are those that emulate this. The Xiang are those that resemble this," can remind us: all vital symbolic systems must be rooted in reverence for and emulation of some greater order. Without this foundation, the symbol becomes mere noise, and the image becomes mere illusion—incapable of revealing fortune, achieving merit, or conveying the sage’s sentiment.

Conclusion

"The Yao are those that emulate this. The Xiang are those that resemble this; when the Yao and Xiang move within, fortune and misfortune are revealed without; meritorious achievements are seen in change, and the sage's sentiment is manifested in the words."

These thirty-odd characters, spanning thousands of years of history, still inspire profound questioning in every serious thinker who encounters them, due to their concise expression and deep implications. From xiào to xiàng, from "within" to "without," from "change" to "words"—this is not merely a roadmap for understanding the Zhou Yi, but a complete methodology for how humanity cognizes the world, responds to change, and expresses truth.

The ancient sages began with the humility of "emulation" and concluded with the depth of "sentiment." In the process of emulating Heaven and Earth, they discovered the laws of change; in the process of revealing fortune and misfortune, they established standards for judgment; in the process of adapting to temporal change, they achieved the merit of governing the world; and in the process of refining the language, they bequeathed their undying care.

What we—the readers of later generations—can do is study these texts with the same humility and seriousness, attempting to glimpse that sentiment of the sages spanning millennia.

This is the lifeblood of the Dao of Change.

** (End of Text) **

Author: The Xuanji Editorial Department

References:

1. Zhou Yi Zhengyi (The True Meaning of the Zhou Yi), Annotated by Wang Bi (Wei Dynasty), Commentary by Kong Yingda (Tang Dynasty).
2. Zhou Yi Ben Yi (Original Meaning of the Zhou Yi), Zhu Xi (Song Dynasty).
3. Yichuan Yi Zhuan (Yichuan’s Commentary on the Yi), Cheng Yi (Song Dynasty).
4. Zhou Yi Nei Zhuan and Zhou Yi Wai Zhuan (Inner and Outer Commentaries on the Zhou Yi), Wang Fuzhi (Late Ming/Early Qing).
5. Zhou Yi Jí Jiě (Collected Explanations of the Zhou Yi), compiled by Li Dingzuo (Tang Dynasty).
6. Zuo Zhuan (The Commentary of Zuo), annotated by Du Yu, commentary by Kong Yingda.
7. Shang Shu Zhengyi (True Meaning of the Documents of Heaven), Commentary by Kong Anguo, commentary by Kong Yingda.
8. Shuowen Jiezi Zhu (Annotated Shuowen Jiezi), Duan Yucai (Qing Dynasty).
9. Lun Yu Ji Jie Yi Shu (Collected Explanations and Commentaries on the Analects).
10. Laozi Dao De Jing He Shang Gong Zhang Ju (Commentary on the Laozi by Lord Heshang).
11. Zhuangzi Ji Shi (Collected Annotations on Zhuangzi), compiled by Guo Qingfan (Qing Dynasty).
12. Shi Ji (Records of the Grand Historian), Sima Qian (Han Dynasty).