Interpreting and Investigating the Chapter: 'The Sage Perceived the Profundities of the World' — The Primordial Code of *Xiang* and *Yao*

Author: Xuanji Editorial Department

Introduction: A Passage Repeatedly Recited, Yet Seldom Truly Understood

Chapter 8 of the Xici Zhuan (The Commentary on the Judgments of the Attached Wings) of the Zhou Yi (Book of Changes) states:

**"The Sage perceived the profundities (zé, 赜) of the world, and simulated them according to their outward forms (**xing róng, 形容); he depicted them according to what was appropriate for the things (**wù yí, 物宜), and thus he is called the Xiang (象, Image). The Sage perceived the movements (**dòng, 动) of the world, and observed their convergence and connection (**huì tōng, 会通); he thereby enacted the rites and regulations (**diǎn lǐ, 典礼), attached statements to them to determine auspiciousness and inauspiciousness (jí xiōng, 吉凶), and thus he is called the Yao (爻, Line)."

This passage has been cited and interpreted by nearly every commentator on the Yi since the Han Dynasty. From Zheng Xuan, Yu Fan, Han Kangbo, Kong Yingda, Cheng Yi, Zhu Xi, Wang Fuzhi, Hui Dong, to Jiao Xun—all who studied the Yi paused here for deep contemplation. However, precisely because its words are few yet its meaning is abundant, and because it occupies the crucial juncture of the entire theoretical structure of the Xici Zhuan, interpretations have often grasped only one aspect—some leaning toward image and number (xiang shu, 象数), some toward rationale and principle (yi lǐ, 义理), some bound by lexicographical exegesis, and others lost in vague, lofty abstraction. Few have truly traced back to the primordial thought of the Pre-Qin or high antiquity to question why this was said and what question it was ultimately answering.

This article attempts an inquiry different from those preceding it. We will not rush to gloss every word—although exegesis is a necessary foundation—but will first pose several fundamental questions:

First, what are the "profundities of the world" (zé of the world)$1 And why must the Sage "perceive" (jiàn, 见) them$2Second, what cognitive leap occurs between "profundity" (zé) and "Image" (Xiang)$3Third, what is the relationship between the "movements of the world" (dòng of the world) and the "profundities of the world" (zé of the world)$4 Why are they discussed separately$5Fourth, why is the Yao (Line) connected with "rites and regulations" (diǎn lǐ)$6 What does this imply about the institutional background of high antiquity$7Fifth, what does the distinction between Xiang (Image) and Yao (Line) reveal about the inherent structure of the Zhou Yi$8

Bearing these questions in mind, we begin with the roots of the terms, delving deeper layer by layer, attempting to touch upon the primordial meaning of this scripture.

Chapter 1: Zé — The Hidden Texture of the World

I. Lexical Analysis and Semantic Field of Zé (赜)

Zé (zé), conspicuously, is not included in the Shuowen Jiezi (Explanations of Simple and Compound Characters). This fact alone warrants attention. Xu Shen, when compiling the Shuowen, searched exhaustively through Pre-Qin texts; why was this character omitted$9 One possibility is that zé was not a commonly used character in the Pre-Qin period, appearing primarily within the Yi commentary system, and repeatedly in the Xici Zhuan:

"The Sage perceived the profundities (zé) of the world." (Xici Shang, Chapter 8) "Uttering the utmost profundities (zé) of the world, yet one cannot find fault with it." (Xici Shang, Chapter 8, later passage) "Exploring the profundities (zé) and seeking the hidden, hooking the deep and reaching the far." (Xici Shang, Chapter 10)

The character is composed of "red" (赤) and "head/page" (页), or alternatively "red" (赤) and "shell/money" (贝), depending on the version. Ma Rong commented: "Zé means confusion/disorderly." Yu Fan commented: "Zé means deep." Han Kangbo commented: "Zé refers to the subtle and deep principles that are hidden and difficult to see." Kong Yingda's Zhengyi explains: "Zé refers to the ultimate principles that are subtle, deep, and remote."

These various explanations, while seemingly disparate, can be integrated. That which is "confused/disorderly" suggests that the myriad things in the world are numerous and complex; superficially, there is an abundance of phenomena without fixed order, like tangled threads or dense stars. That which is "subtle/deep" suggests that beneath this complex surface exists a profound order that is not easily captured by the senses. Considered together, the complete semantic meaning of zé should be: the intricate, subtle, and complex inner texture of the myriad things in the world.

This understanding is crucial. Zé is not mere "complexity," nor is it mere "secrecy"—it is secrecy embedded within complexity, and order embedded within the hidden. Because order can be sought, the Sage can "perceive" it; because this order is concealed, the Sage is needed to "perceive" it.

II. Why "Perceive" (Jiàn) Instead of "Know" (Zhī)$10

The scripture states, "The Sage perceived (jiàn) the profundities of the world," using jiàn instead of zhī. This choice of character is far from accidental.

In early Classical Chinese, the most fundamental meaning of jiàn is "that which the eye can see" (Shuowen): "Jiàn, to see. Composed of person (儿) and eye (目)." It points toward a direct, immediate, and embodied cognition, rather than the result of abstract reasoning.

Contrast this with the other character—zhī ("to know"). Zhī, composed of "arrow" (矢) and "mouth" (口), fundamentally relates to speech and judgment, extending to rational cognition and conceptual grasp. In the Analects, Confucius says, "To know what you know and to know what you do not know—this is knowledge" (Analects 2.17). This zhī leans toward rational judgment.

However, the Xici Zhuan, by using jiàn here, emphasizes that the Sage's grasp of the world's zé is, first and foremost, a process of "direct intuition" rather than logical deduction. This "perception" was later developed in Wei-Jin Neo-Daoism as "experiential realization" (tǐ rèn) or "mystical apprehension" (míng huì), and in Chan Buddhism as "seeing one's nature" (jiàn xìng). But in the primordial context of the Pre-Qin era, it aligns more closely with an acutely sensitive faculty of observation—the Sage surveyed the celestial phenomena, examined the geography, took things from nearby and distant sources, and through deep contemplation of the myriad manifestations of nature, "perceived" the order hidden beneath the complexity.

The following narrative in the Xici Xia Zhuan provides the classic illustration of this process:

"In antiquity, when Pao Xi ruled the world, he looked upward to observe the images (xiang, 象) in Heaven, and looked downward to observe the models (fa, 法) on Earth. He observed the patterns of birds and beasts and the suitability of the Earth. He took things from nearby, and things from afar. From this, he first created the Eight Trigrams, to connect with the sublime virtue of the spirits, and to categorize the emotions (qíng, 情) of the myriad things."

This passage serves as the best footnote to "The Sage perceived the profundities of the world." What Fuxi did was "look upward and downward," which is "perception" (jiàn). What he "perceived" was the world's zé—that deep texture hidden within the celestial images, the earth, the birds, beasts, grass, and trees.

III. Antiquity’s "Perception": A Visual Culture from Oracle Bones to Bronze Inscriptions

If we push our perspective further back into high antiquity, the meaning of jiàn becomes even richer.

The oracle bone script for jiàn depicts a human figure with a greatly enlarged eye, emphasizing sight. This character shape itself informs us that the early inhabitants of antiquity imbued the act of "seeing" with exceptionally special significance. In the animistic mindset of early antiquity, "seeing" was not merely a physical process but a spiritual encounter—when you "saw" something, it meant you had established a connection with that thing.

The character jiàn appears frequently in oracle bone divinations, such as "The King saw a great star" (wáng jiàn dà xīng) or "Saw a rainbow from the north" (jiàn hóng zì běi), all recording phenomena deemed to carry mysterious portents. In this context, jiàn inherently carries the meaning of "receiving the mandate of Heaven."

Therefore, when the Xici Zhuan says, "The Sage perceived the profundities of the world," the word jiàn on the semantic level of high antiquity implies not just "seeing," but also "comprehending," or "encountering the hidden order of Heaven and Earth." This encounter required a special qualification—which is why the subject is the "Sage," not the common person.

IV. The Significance of "Yǒu Yǐ" (有以)

"Yǒu yǐ" is a common Pre-Qin phrase meaning "to possess the method" or "to have the basis." In Zhuangzi (Chapter 3), "What I love is the Dao, which goes beyond mere technique." The reason Butcher Ding could slice an ox using "spirit to meet rather than eye to see" was precisely because he "had the means" (yǒu yǐ)—he possessed a unique method and cultivation.

"The Sage yǒu yǐ perceived the profundities of the world"—the Sage possesses a method; it is not baseless conjecture or arbitrary speculation, but rather a complete path of observation and thought. This method is what is later called "looking upward and downward" and "taking from near and far." More profoundly, yǒu yǐ implies a level of cultivation—only by reaching the Sage's state can one "have the means" to see what others cannot.

This reminds us of the first line of the Tao Te Ching:

"Constantly without desire, one can observe its mystery (*miào, 妙); constantly with desire, one can observe its manifestations (*jiǎo, 徼)."

Laozi’s "observation" (guān) is fundamentally connected to the Xici Zhuan's "perception" (jiàn): both point to a deep intuition that transcends ordinary sensory perception. Laozi emphasizes observing from a state of "non-being" to see the "mystery" (the subtle origin of all things); the Xici Zhuan emphasizes that only the "Sage" yǒu yǐ can perceive the zé (the hidden texture of the world). Both point to the same epistemological proposition: The deepest reality requires the highest level of cognition to access.

Chapter 2: From Zé to Xiang — The Great Leap of Cognition

I. "Simulating According to Their Outward Forms" (Nǐ Zhū Qí Xíng Róng) — Mimicry and Abstraction

The next step in the scripture is critical: "and simulated them according to their outward forms (*nǐ zhū qí xíng róng, 拟诸其形容)."

"Nǐ" (Shuowen): "To measure/compare." Duan Yucai comments: "To measure means to model/regulate. To plan." In the Pre-Qin context, the basic meaning of nǐ is "to compare," "to simulate," or "to take as a standard." For example, in the Liji (Qu Li Shang): "When comparing one person to another, one must compare within the same category." This means comparison must be made among peers.

The two characters "form" (xíng, 形) and "countenance/appearance" (róng, 容) were not a single term in the Pre-Qin period, but two parallel concepts. Xíng refers to external physical shape; róng refers to posture, facial appearance, or countenance. Combined, they denote the external, visible, and describable appearance of a thing.

Thus, "nǐ zhū qí xíng róng" means: To compare the subtle and hidden deep textures (zé) with the outward forms (xíng róng) they manifest, in order to simulate and express them.

This is an extremely important cognitive step. Zé is latent and cannot be directly presented, but it is always revealed through the xíng róng of myriad things. For instance: the movement of Heaven is hidden and imperceptible, but the rising and setting of the sun, moon, and stars are visible; the vitality of the Earth is hidden, but the flourishing and fading of plants, the ebb and flow of rivers, are visible. What the Sage does is use these visible xíng róng to approximate the imperceptible zé.

In modern epistemological terms, this process is grasping the essence through phenomena. However, the uniqueness of Pre-Qin thought is that it did not sharply separate phenomenon from essence, as later Western philosophy did. Instead, it held that the phenomenon itself is the "manifestation" of the essence—xíng róng is the external expression of zé, and zé is the internal basis of xíng róng. They are inseparable, differing only in the distinction between "manifest" and "hidden."

II. "Depicting What is Appropriate for the Things" (Xiàng Qí Wù Yí) — Taking Images and Suitability

"Xiàng qí wù yí" is the second step immediately following "nǐ zhū qí xíng róng."

"Xiàng" here is a verb, meaning "to draw a likeness," "to describe," or "to take an image from." In Classical Chinese, "xiàng" (像, likeness) and "xiàng" (象, image/archetype) are often interchangeable. Shuowen defines "xiàng" as "the great beast of Southern Yue." By extension, it refers to anything visible with a form. However, "xiàng" emphasizes the action of "likeness" or "comparison."

"Wù yí"—this is a term well worth scrutinizing. Wù means myriad things; yí means appropriate, suitable, or fitting. Used together, "wù yí" means the appropriate state for each thing, and the suitable position and relationship for each thing. The Zhouli (Dì Guān, Dà Sī Tú) states: "By the methods of soil suitability (tǔ yí), distinguish the names and things of the twelve types of soil." Here, tǔ yí means the products suitable for growth in each type of soil. By extension, "wù yí" means the inherent law and relational pattern that is appropriate for each thing.

Therefore, "xiàng qí wù yí" means: To depict the state and relationship appropriate for each thing by means of taking images.

Combining "nǐ zhū qí xíng róng" and "xiàng qí wù yí": the Sage first compares the external forms (xíng róng) of myriad things, and then further depicts the internal appropriate relationships (wù yí), ultimately forming the "Xiang" (Image).

This process reveals a profound epistemological principle: The Xiang is not a simple imitation of any single concrete thing, but rather a "typified expression" extracted through the comprehensive comparison of the forms (xíng róng) and the appropriatenesses (wù yí) of myriad things.

For example, why are the Xiang of the Qian trigram associated with Heaven, with firmness, with vigor, with the ruler, with the father, with the horse, with the head, with metal, and with jade$11 These seemingly disparate things are grouped under the same Xiang because they share the same wù yí—firmness, dominance, being in the superior position, and ceaseless motion. The Sage "perceived" this underlying texture (zé) hidden within Heaven, ruler, father, and horse. Through "simulating their outward forms" (nǐ zhū qí xíng róng) and "depicting what is appropriate for the things" (xiàng qí wù yí), he finally fixed this shared texture with the symbol "Qian" and the graphical representation "☰." This is the birth of the Xiang.

III. "Thus He is Called Xiang" — The Solemnity of Naming

"Thus he is called Xiang" (是故谓之象, shì gù wèi zhī xiàng). This is not a mere definition but a solemn act of naming.

In Pre-Qin thought, "naming" was never arbitrary. Tao Te Ching (Chapter 1): "The name that can be named is not the constant name." Analects (13.3): "If names be not correct, language is in accordance with the truth of things." The name is the human grasp and fixation of a thing's essence. To name something is to confirm that human cognition of that thing has reached a communicable level.

"Thus he is called Xiang"—because the product of this entire process (perceiving zé → simulating xíng róng → depicting wù yí) is the Xiang.

But we must ask: Why is it called Xiang, and not something else$12

The original meaning of the character xiàng (象) is the elephant. The oracle bone script for xiàng depicts the profile of an elephant—long trunk, large ears, thick legs. Wild elephants certainly roamed the Central Plains during the Shang Dynasty, making the elephant one of the largest terrestrial animals visible to the people of the time.

From this original meaning, xiàng derives several layers of meaning:

First Layer: Form, Appearance. Because the elephant is huge and its form is distinct, xiàng extended to mean all visible forms. Second Layer: Sign, Trace. Where an elephant walks, it leaves huge tracks; thus, xiàng extended to mean the traces or signs left by things. Third Layer: Emulation, Taking the Image. Xiàng as a verb means "to imitate the form of something." In the Shangshu (Yao Dian): "Emulate (xiàng) the exemplary penalties." That is, using imagery to display punishments.

All three layers coexist in "Thus he is called Xiang": the Xiang is the image created by the Sage (the trigram/hexagram image), it is the trace/sign of Heaven and Earth’s myriad things (zhēng xiàng, 征象), and it is formed by emulating the myriad things (xiào fǎ, 效法).

Han Kangbo commented on this phrase: "Xiàng, is xiàng (likeness)." Kong Yingda elaborated: "It means depicting what is appropriate for things." Cheng Yi in his Yichuan Yizhuan stated: "The Sage establishes the trigrams to image the affairs of the world, just as he takes images." Zhu Xi in the Zhou Yi Benyi noted: "Xiang refers to the upper and lower trigrams of a hexagram, as well as the words attached by the Duke of Zhou."

While each exegesis emphasizes a different point, the core meaning is consistent: The Xiang is the great product of the Sage transforming the world’s zé into a form that is visible, transmissible, and usable for cognition.

IV. The Antiquity of Xiang Thought

If we cast our view further back to high antiquity, the origin of Xiang thought becomes clearer.

In the early stages of human cognition, abstract concepts were not yet developed. The basic method for understanding the world was "taking the image" (qǔ xiàng, 取象)—grasping abstract, imperceptible principles through concrete, perceptible images. This was not a "primitive" mode of thought; on the contrary, it was the oldest and most vital cognitive approach.

Archaeological discoveries—the painted pottery patterns of the Neolithic period, the jade carvings, the rock art—are all products of Xiang thought. The human-faced fish pattern on pottery from Banpo, the Jade Pig-Dragon and C-shaped Dragons from Hongshan culture, the Divine Man-Beast Face motif from Liangzhu culture—these designs were not mere decoration; they were the Pre-ancient people’s representation (qǔ xiàng) of the world's zé.

The image of the Dragon is a prime example. The Dragon is not any existing animal but a composite image created by the ancients through integrating, extracting, and reorganizing features of the snake, fish, bird, deer, and horse. It "simulated" the "outward forms" (xíng róng) of various animals and "depicted the appropriateness" (xiàng qí wù yí) of natural forces like water, clouds, thunder, and lightning, ultimately becoming a comprehensive Xiang representing the highest vitality and power of transformation. This process is strikingly similar to what the Xici Zhuan describes: "The Sage perceived the profundities of the world, and simulated them according to their outward forms; he depicted them according to what was appropriate for the things, and thus he is called the Xiang."

The Eight Trigrams are similar. The three unbroken lines (☰) take the image of Heaven’s wholeness and the relentless vigor of the yang energy; the three broken lines (☷) take the image of Earth’s capacity to carry and contain, and the gentleness of the yin energy. These symbols, reduced to their utmost simplicity, condense the ancients' deepest insights into the texture of Heaven, Earth, and all things.

As Mr. Wen Yiduo pointed out in his Zhou Yi Yizheng Leizuan, the formation of the trigram symbolic system was an inevitable outcome of symbolic thought reaching a certain stage—it marked humanity's ability to use extremely concise symbols to encompass extremely complex world experiences.

V. Inquiry: Why Xiang and Not "Concept"$13

This is a profound question. Western philosophy, since the time of Ancient Greece, followed the path of "conceptualization"—grasping the essence of things through logical definition. Plato’s "Ideas" (eidos) and Aristotle’s "Categories" (kategoria) both constructed cognitive systems through abstract concepts.

But Pre-Qin Chinese thought followed a different path—"taking the image" (qǔ xiàng). This was not because Pre-Qin thinkers lacked the ability for logical inference (the Mohists and the School of Names, like Hui Shi and Gongsun Long, possessed considerable logical acuity), but because they keenly realized that concepts divide the organic connections between things, whereas the Xiang preserves these connections.

A concept can only point to a class of things, its boundaries are clear—a "horse" is a horse; it cannot simultaneously be "firm," "Heaven," or "ruler." But a Xiang can point to multiple levels simultaneously—the Xiang of Qian is Heaven, firmness, vigor, ruler, father, horse, head, etc. These diverse things are linked together by the thread of the Xiang, forming an organic network of meaning.

This is the greatness of Xiang thought: It is not a reductive thinking (reducing complexity to simplicity), but an analogical thinking (discovering isomorphic relationships between different things).

Immediately following this passage, the Xici Zhuan lists numerous instances of the Xiang:

"Thus, the Xiang—the Sage perceived the profundities of the world, and simulated them according to their outward forms; he depicted them according to what was appropriate for the things, and thus he is called the Xiang."

Here, it is repeatedly emphasized that the foundation of the Xiang lies in the zé—that there truly exists a deep isomorphism among the myriad things of the world. The Sage is not subjectively creating connections, but objectively "perceiving" these connections, and then expressing them in the form of the Xiang.

Chapter 3: Dòng — The Mechanism of Life Transformation in the World

I. The Shift from Zé to Dòng

The latter half of the scripture shifts from the "profundities of the world" (zé of the world) to the "movements of the world" (dòng of the world):

"The Sage perceived the movements (dòng, 动) of the world, and observed their convergence and connection (huì tōng, 会通); he thereby enacted the rites and regulations (diǎn lǐ, 典礼), attached statements to them to determine auspiciousness and inauspiciousness (jí xiōng, 吉凶), and thus he is called the Yao (爻, Line)."

This transition is crucial yet often overlooked. Many commentators conflate zé and dòng, believing they are merely different ways of describing the same thing. However, if analyzed closely, there is an essential difference between the two:

The Zé is static—it describes the hidden texture and deep structure of the world’s myriad things; it is a question concerning "Being."The Dòng is dynamic—it describes the motion, transformation, and interaction of the world’s myriad things; it is a question concerning "Process."

In other words, zé answers, "What is the world like$14" while dòng answers, "How does the world change$15" The former concerns structure, the latter concerns process. The former is expressed through Xiang, while the latter is expressed through Yao.

This distinction carries profound theoretical weight in the history of Yi studies. It actually reveals the dual nature of the Zhou Yi: The Zhou Yi is both an "Image/Blueprint" (Xiang) concerning the structure of the cosmos, and a "Process" (Yao) concerning the transformation of the cosmos.

Consider: Why does every one of the sixty-four hexagrams have both a "Trigram Image" (Guà Xiàng, 卦象) and "Line Statements" (Yáo Cí, 爻辞)$16 Why can’t there be only images without line statements, or only line statements without images$17 Because the Xiang only describes structure, whereas the Yao describes how this structure unfolds and changes through time. Both are indispensable; only together do they constitute the complete Yi.

II. The Pre-Qin Semantics of Dòng

In Pre-Qin texts, dòng is a concept rich in meaning.

Its most basic meaning is "physical motion." Tao Te Ching (Chapter 26): "Heaviness is the root of lightness; stillness is the master of motion (zào, 躁)." Here, zào is synonymous with dòng. But in a deeper philosophical sense, dòng points to all change, all interaction, all transformation.

The Xici Xia Zhuan says:

"Firm and yielding push against each other, giving rise to transformation."

"Pushing against each other" (xiāng tuī, 相推) is the specific unfolding of dòng—yin and yang push against each other, firmness and yielding push against each other, Heaven and Earth push against each other, and in this pushing, transformation arises.

The Xici Shang Zhuan also states:

"One yin and one yang is called the Dao; what follows this is good; what completes this is nature (xìng, 性)."

The alternation of "one yin and one yang" is the most fundamental dòng—it is not a specific thing moving, but the alternation between yin and yang itself being the dòng.

Therefore, "the movements of the world" (dòng of the world) does not mean some things in the world move while others do not; rather, it means all things in the world are in motion according to the great rhythm of yin-yang alternation. This dòng is universal, fundamental, and ceaseless.

In the Analects (Zihan):

"The Master, by the stream, said: 'It passes on just like this, never ceasing, day or night!'"

This profound sense of the constant flow of all things is the direct experience of the "movements of the world." The water flows endlessly, time never stops, and everything is in transformation—this is the most basic contemplation of the "movements of the world."

III. Why is Jiàn Used for Both Zé and Dòng$18

It is noteworthy that the scripture uses the character jiàn ("perceive") when addressing both zé and dòng: "The Sage yǒu yǐ jiàn the profundities of the world," and "The Sage yǒu yǐ jiàn the movements of the world." The use of jiàn is identical.

This indicates that, in the view of the Xici Zhuan's author, grasping both the deep structure of the world (zé) and the process of change in the world (dòng) requires the same cognitive capacity—direct intuition. The Sage does not conclude that "the world is moving" through logical inference, but rather "perceives" this fact through direct observation.

However, the subsequent handling differs. For the zé, the Sage's method is "simulating according to their outward forms, depicting what is appropriate for the things"—taking the image (qǔ xiàng). For the dòng, the Sage's method is "observing their convergence and connection, thereby enacting the rites and regulations, attaching statements to them to determine auspiciousness and inauspiciousness"—this is a far more complex process.

Chapter 4: Huì Tōng — The Nexus of Transformation

I. The Deeper Meaning of "Observing Their Convergence and Connection" (Guān Qí Huì Tōng)

"Observing their convergence and connection" (guān qí huì tōng, 观其会通)—these four characters are exquisitely precise, encapsulating the core of the Yi's philosophy of change.

"Huì" means coming together, intersecting. "Tōng" means penetrating, achieving smooth passage. Used together, "huì tōng" refers to the points of intersection and channels of passage during the process of transformation.

All things in the world are moving (dòng), but dòng is not random or chaotic. Amidst infinite transformation, there are always certain crucial nodes—at these nodes, multiple threads of change converge (huì), forming channels that can be understood and grasped (tōng).

To use a metaphor: A great river flows ceaselessly (dòng), but there are always special places in the river—forks, confluences, sharp bends, drops. At these points, the direction and force of the current change significantly; these are the river's points of "huì tōng." A skilled hydraulic engineer does not need to know the trajectory of every drop of water; he only needs to grasp these crucial points of "huì tōng" to understand the law governing the entire river's movement, and thus utilize it.

Similarly, when the Sage "observes" the movements of the world, he is not trying to learn the details of every thing’s change at every moment (which is impossible), but rather attempting to grasp the critical junctures in the process of change—those crucial hubs where multiple forces converge and multiple trends pass through.

II. Huì Tōng and the Logic of Trigram-Line Change

In the trigram-line system, huì tōng is embodied in the relationship between one line and another.

A hexagram has six lines, from the lowest to the highest, representing the complete process of transformation for a thing, from its beginning to its end. In this process, every line occupies a specific position (wèi, 位) and stands in a specific relationship to other lines—correspondence (yìng, 应, e.g., 1st and 4th, 2nd and 5th, 3rd and 6th correspond), adjacency (bǐ, 比), superimposition (chéng, 乘), and carrying (chéng, 承). These relationships constitute the "huì tōng" within the hexagram.

Taking the Qian Hexagram (Heaven) as an example. The Six Lines of Qian:

1st Line (Beginning): Hidden dragon, do not act. 2nd Line: Dragon appearing in the field; beneficial to see the Great Man. 3rd Line: The superior man day and night strives diligently; in the evening he is cautious; there is no blame. 4th Line: Perhaps leaping, perhaps being in the abyss; no blame. 5th Line: Soaring dragon in Heaven; beneficial to see the Great Man. 6th Line: Overreaching dragon, regret ensues.

From "hidden" to "appearing," to "striving diligently," to "perhaps leaping," to "soaring," to "overreaching"—this depicts a complete process of change—the full cycle of yang energy from latent, to manifesting, to striving, to ascending, to flying, to reaching the extreme. Every turning point is a point of "huì tōng." The reason the 3rd Line must "diligently strive day and night" is precisely because it occupies a key position at the junction (convergence, huì) between the lower trigram and the upper trigram; if cautious, it can penetrate upward (connection, tōng); if careless, it risks falling. This is the concrete embodiment of "guān qí huì tōng" in the line image.

Confucius offered an exceedingly precise interpretation of this: The Wenyan Zhuan records:

"The 3rd line is heavy in its firmness yet not central. It is not yet the Heaven above, nor is it yet the field below; thus, it diligently strives according to the time and remains cautious; though in peril, there is no blame."

"Heavy in its firmness yet not central" (zhòng gāng ér bù zhōng)—the 3rd line is yang in a yang position (heavy firmness), yet it is not in a central position (not central). Thus, its situation is precarious. "Not yet the Heaven above, nor yet the field below"—it can neither reside in the high position like the soaring dragon of the 5th line, nor rest in the middle position like the dragon in the field of the 2nd line, but occupies a transitional, unstable point of "huì tōng." Precisely because it is at such a crucial node, it requires extraordinary vigilance. This is the specific application of "observing their convergence and connection."

III. The Pre-Qin Intellectual Background of Huì Tōng

The concept of "huì tōng" has widespread resonance in Pre-Qin thought.

In the Analects (Wei Zheng), Confucius says:

"If a man can review the old and know the new, he may become a teacher."

"Reviewing the old" (wēn gù, 温故) is grasping past experience; "knowing the new" (zhī xīn, 知新) is penetrating future changes. Uniting the past and the future (huì tōng) is the way of a teacher.

The Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean, Chapter 1):

"When joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not yet been expressed, this is called the center (zhōng); when they are expressed and all accord with the proper measure, this is called harmony (hé). The Center is the great root of the world; Harmony is the universal Way of the world."

"Center" (zhōng) is the state before expression; "Harmony" (hé) is the state of expressed action in accordance with measure. In the transition from zhōng to hé, "accordance with measure" (zhōng jié, 中节) is "huì tōng"—the transformation of emotion from internal to external, and how it is expressed at the appropriate node in the appropriate manner—this is the unfolding of "observing their convergence and connection" in the cultivation of human emotion.

Mencius, discussing Confucius as "the Sage of his time" (wàn zhāng xià, 万章下):

"Confucius is called the one who brought the Great Synthesis (jí dà chéng, 集大成). Bringing the Great Synthesis means striking the metal sounds and then shaking the jade pendants. Striking the metal sounds means establishing the initial order; shaking the jade pendants means completing the final order. Establishing the initial order is the work of wisdom; completing the final order is the work of the Sage."

The connection (huì tōng) between "establishing the initial order" and "completing the final order" is "Great Synthesis." Confucius is revered as the ultimate Sage precisely because he could synthesize the changes of ancient and modern times, and the strengths of various schools, into an organic whole within himself.

Thus, "huì tōng" is not just a specialized concept of Yi studies, but a fundamental feature of Pre-Qin thinking. Pre-Qin thinkers focused not on static "Being," but on dynamic "Process"; not on isolated "nodes," but on the "connections" between nodes. "Observing their convergence and connection" means grasping the critical connections and turning points within the torrent of change, thereby understanding the laws of transformation.

Chapter 5: Diǎn Lǐ — The Foundation of Institutions and Order

I. What Does "Enacting Their Rites and Regulations" (Yǐ Xíng Qí Diǎn Lǐ) Mean$19

The scripture continues: "he thereby enacted the rites and regulations (diǎn lǐ, 典礼)." This phrase has led to significant divergence among commentators.

First Interpretation (Han Kangbo, Kong Yingda): "Diǎn lǐ" refers to "standard rites" (diǎn cháng zhī lǐ), meaning the norms and institutions governing human activity. "Enacting their rites and regulations" means that after observing the convergence and connection of the world's movements, the Sage established and implemented the fundamental codes and regulations for human society accordingly.

Second Interpretation (Zhu Xi): "Diǎn lǐ" refers to "constant principles" (cháng lǐ). "Enacting their rites and regulations" means that after observing huì tōng, the Sage used these principles to carry out conduct standards that accord with constant principles.

Third Interpretation (Some modern scholars): "Diǎn lǐ" refers to the rites of divination—specifically, the ritual procedure of using yarrow stalks to cast trigrams. "Enacting their rites and regulations" means that the Sage used the ritual of divination to make decisions.

While each interpretation has its basis, if we return to the primordial context of the Pre-Qin era, the first interpretation is likely closest to the original meaning, for the following reasons:

In Pre-Qin texts, "diǎn" fundamentally means "classic text," "constant standard," or "eternal law." The Shangshu (Yao Dian) begins: "In reviewing antiquity, Emperor Yao was called Gong-sun, he was respectful, bright, versed in culture, and accomplished..." This "diǎn" takes the meaning of "constant standard"—recording the eternal laws of the rulers. The oracle bone script for "diǎn" depicts hands holding a scroll, its original meaning being an important document or law.

"Lǐ" in the Pre-Qin context is a concept with immense scope—from sacrificial rites to daily etiquette, from state institutions to personal cultivation—nearly all normative behavior could be called "lǐ." The Liji (Li Yun): "The rites are what the former kings received from Heaven, and used to regulate the emotions (qíng) of the people. Therefore, those who lose them die; those who attain them live."

The combination "diǎn lǐ" means "standardized rites"—those constant, fundamental norms and institutions.

Therefore, "enacting their rites and regulations" means: After observing the convergence and connection of the world’s movements, the Sage established and implemented the fundamental institutions and norms of human society according to this observation.

II. Why is "Movement of the World" (Dòng of the World) Connected to "Rites and Regulations" (Diǎn Lǐ)$20

This connection may seem abrupt, but it is profound.

All things in the world are changing (dòng), but human society cannot simply follow the flow or be dictated by change—humanity must establish order (diǎn lǐ) within change so that life has a foundation to rely upon. However, this order cannot be arbitrarily imposed by humans in opposition to the Dao of Heaven and Earth—it must conform to the internal laws of the world's movements (huì tōng) in order to endure.

In other words, the diǎn lǐ is not a human invention or creation, but the institutional expression of the internal laws governing the world's movements. Heaven has the order of the four seasons, so humans have the seasonal rites; the Earth has the division of the nine provinces, so humans have hierarchical distinctions; yin and yang have the law of waxing and waning, so humans have positions of respect and inferiority. These diǎn lǐ were not imagined out of thin air by the Sage; they are the product of the Sage observing the huì tōng of the world’s movements and transforming it into human order.

This idea is extensively echoed in Pre-Qin texts.

The Liji (Yue Ji):

"Grand music harmonizes with Heaven and Earth; grand rites accord with Heaven and Earth’s measure. Harmony, thus nothing is lost; measure, thus Heaven is sacrificed to and Earth is revered."

"Grand rites accord with Heaven and Earth’s measure" (dà lǐ yǔ tiān dì tóng jié)—the greatest ritual system is synchronized with the measure of Heaven and Earth. Is this not another expression of "The Sage perceived the movements of the world, and observed their convergence and connection; he thereby enacted the rites and regulations"$21

The Liji (Li Yun):

"Therefore, the Sages harmonize with Heaven and Earth, and align with the spirits, in order to govern. Where they reside, there is the order of rites; what they enjoy, there is the governance of the people."

The Sage "harmonizes with Heaven and Earth"—establishing rites by referencing the Dao of Heaven and Earth. This is entirely consistent with "observing their convergence and connection, thereby enacting the rites and regulations."

In the Zuo Zhuan (Zhao Gong 25), Zichan argues about rites:

"Rites are the constant law (jīng, 经) of Heaven, the righteousness (yì, 义) of Earth, and the conduct of the people. The constant law of Heaven and Earth, and the people follow it. They follow the clarity of Heaven, follow the nature of Earth, produce the six qi, and utilize the five xing (elements)."

"Rites are the constant law of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth"—the system of rites is the human projection of the order of Heaven and Earth. This is the best commentary on "The Sage perceived the movements of the world, and observed their convergence and connection; he thereby enacted the rites and regulations."

III. The Unity of Ancient Ritual and Divination

If we push our view back to high antiquity, the relationship between "diǎn lǐ" and divination becomes even tighter.

In ancient society, almost all major ritual activities—sacrifice, warfare, marriage and funeral rites, construction, hunting—required prior divination. The oracle bones preserve numerous divination records, documenting the divinatory acts performed by the Shang people before undertaking various ritual activities.

For example:

"Divined: Will the King hunt at Qin$22 Will he succeed$23" (zhēn: wáng qí tián yú qín, huò$24) "Divined: Will it rain tomorrow$25" (zhēn: yì rì yǔ$26) "Divined: Will the High Lord grant us a good harvest$27" (zhēn: dì shòu wǒ nián$28)

These oracle texts tell us that, in the ancient consciousness, all human activities (diǎn lǐ) had to be coordinated with the laws of Heaven and Earth's movements, and divination was the means to confirm whether this coordination was achieved.

Therefore, the phrase "enacting their rites and regulations" in the context of high antiquity may have a richer meaning than later commentators assumed: It not only means the Sage established human rites based on the Heavenly Dao, but also that the Sage grasped the laws of the world's movements through the special "rite" of divination, thereby guiding all human activities.

From this perspective, the generation of the Yao (Line) is not merely an epistemological event (how to express change), but also an institutional history event (how to establish order). The generation of the Yao allowed the laws of the world's movements to be incorporated into the framework of rites, thereby grounding human order in the Dao of Heaven and Earth.

Chapter 6: Attaching Statements to Determine Auspiciousness and Inauspiciousness — The Decisive Function of the Yao

I. "Attaching Statements to Determine Their Auspiciousness and Inauspiciousness" (Xì Cí Yān Yǐ Duàn Qí Jí Xīong)

The final critical element of the scripture: "attached statements to them to determine their auspiciousness and inauspiciousness (xì cí yān yǐ duàn qí jí xiōng, 系辞焉以断其吉凶)."

"Xì cí" means attaching textual statements—these are the explanatory writings placed below the trigram lines, which are the hexagram and line statements we see today.

"Duàn qí jí xiōng" means judging the good or bad fortune of a developing situation. This is the ultimate goal of the entire process.

Here we must ask: Why did the Sage "determine auspiciousness and inauspiciousness"$29 What necessary connection does this have with the preceding "perceiving zé," "simulating Xiang," and "observing huì tōng"$30

The answer lies here: The Zhou Yi, fundamentally, is a "Book of Resolving Doubt"—it arose from the anxiety and response of the ancient people when facing uncertainty. The world's zé is subtle and difficult to perceive; the world's dòng is ever-changing. Man is placed within this, constantly facing dilemmas of choice—at such times, a reliable guiding system is needed to aid in decision-making.

The Xici Shang Zhuan (Chapter 11) states this clearly:

"Thus, the Yi is the Xiang. The Xiang is likening. The Judgment (Tuan, 彖) is the material (cái, 材). The Yao are those that效 (imitate/model) the movements of the world. Thus, when auspiciousness and inauspiciousness arise, regret and blame become manifest."

"The Yao are those that model the movements of the world" (yào zhě, xiào tiān xià zhī dòng zhě yě). The essence of the Yao is to "model" (xiào) the laws of the world's movements. The movements of the world involve both benefit and harm; human affairs involve both gain and loss. The Sage models these trends of change through the Yao, and then uses textual statements to make judgments of "auspiciousness" or "inauspiciousness."

Here lies a profound insight: Auspiciousness (jí) and inauspiciousness (xiōng) are not subjective judgments external to change, but inherent attributes of the change itself. If one follows certain trends of change, it is "auspicious"; if one goes against them, it is "inauspicious." The Sage "attaching statements to determine auspiciousness and inauspiciousness" is not making a moral judgment, but revealing the objective direction of the trend of change.

II. The Antiquity of "Auspiciousness" and "Inauspiciousness"

The concepts of jí and xiōng were deeply ingrained in high antiquity. Oracle bones contain numerous instances of the characters for jí and xiōng. The oracle bone script for jí depicts "soldier/official" (士) above "mouth" (口), possibly meaning a weapon placed in its sheath, extended to mean peace and good fortune. The script for xiōng depicts a pit or hole (sometimes with an 'X' mark), meaning a trap or depression, extended to mean danger and disadvantage.

In the Shang Dynasty divinations, jí and xiōng were the most basic categories of divinatory results. Every divination concluded with a judgment of "auspicious" or "inauspicious" (not auspicious). This tradition continued into the Zhou Yi.

However, the judgment of jí and xiōng in the Zhou Yi is far more complex than in the Shang oracle bones. Shang divination usually yielded only two results: "auspicious" or "inauspicious" (not auspicious), whereas the Yao Ci (Line Statements) of the Zhou Yi include multiple levels: "auspicious" (jí), "inauspicious" (xiōng), "regret" (huǐ), "blame" (lìn), "no blame" (wú jiù), "benefit" (lì), and "disadvantage" (bù lì).

The Xici Shang Zhuan provides a succinct summary of this:

"Auspiciousness and inauspiciousness are the images of gaining and losing. Regret and blame are the images of worry and apprehension." "Therefore, distinguishing the noble and base depends on position; equalizing the great and small depends on the hexagram; distinguishing auspiciousness and inauspiciousness depends on the statements."

"Distinguishing auspiciousness and inauspiciousness depends on the statements" (biàn jí xiōng zhě cún yú cí). The discrimination of jí and xiōng is achieved precisely through the Yao Ci. This brings us back to "attaching statements to determine their auspiciousness and inauspiciousness"—the purpose of attaching the statements is to judge jí and xiōng.

III. The Meaning of Duàn (断)

The word duàn in Classical Chinese fundamentally means "to cut off." By extension, it means "to resolve" or "to judge." Han Feizi (Nan San): "Affairs have no constant teacher; the key is that the ruler is good at making decisions (duàn)." This means the crucial element in handling matters is the sovereign's ability to make firm decisions.

The duàn in "attaching statements to determine their auspiciousness and inauspiciousness" emphasizes "judgment"—not vague suggestion, not ambiguous metaphor, but a clear determination that can serve as a basis for action.

This is also an important difference between Yao and Xiang. The Xiang provides an iconic intuition—seeing this image allows for multiple understandings and associations. But the Yao Ci provides a convergent judgment—"auspicious," "inauspicious," "beneficial to see the Great Man," "not beneficial to cross the great river"—these are direct instructions guiding action.

From an epistemological perspective, the Xiang is open-ended, while the Yao Ci is convergent. The Xiang displays a rich space of meaning, while the Yao Ci makes a concrete choice within that space. Only when combined do they constitute the complete cognitive-decisional system of the Zhou Yi.

Chapter 7: "Thus He is Called Yao" — The Naming and Essence of the Yao

I. The Etymology of Yao (爻)

Yao (yáo), the character yáo is not found conclusively in oracle bone script. However, Xu Shen explains in the Shuowen Jiezi: "Yao, means crossing/interlacing. It images the crossing of the six Yao in the Yi." Duan Yucai comments: "Yao means to model (xiào). It is that which models the movements of the world."

The form of the Yao character depicts two superimposed 'x' marks (crossing symbols). This image very intuitively conveys the meaning of "crossing" or "interlacing"—the interlacing of yin and yang.

From a etymological perspective, yáo is closely linked in sound and meaning to xiào (to model/imitate) and jiāo (to cross/interact). In the phonology of high antiquity, yáo belongs to the Hà initial group, xiāo rhyme group; xiào belongs to the Hà initial group, xiāo rhyme group; jiāo belongs to the Jiàn initial group, xiāo rhyme group. The similarity in rhyme groups and near identity in initials suggest a common origin.

Therefore, the character yáo itself embodies three layers of meaning:

1. Crossing (Jiāo): The interlacing arrangement of yin lines and yang lines.
2. Modeling (Xiào): Modeling the laws of the world's movements.
3. Change (Biàn): The change of the Yao (a changing line, biàn yáo) is the basic unit of hexagram change.

II. Why Six Lines$31

Why does a hexagram have six lines, rather than five, seven, or eight$32

This question has long been debated. The Xici Xia Zhuan offers a classic explanation:

"The Yi, as a book, is vast and fully comprehensive. It has the Way of Heaven, it has the Way of Man, and it has the Way of Earth. Combining the Three Powers and doubling them, thus it is six. The number six is nothing other than the Way of the Three Powers."

The "Three Powers" (Sān Cái, 三才)—Heaven, Earth, and Man. "Doubling them" (liǎng zhī, 两之)—each power has a yin and yang aspect, so three multiplied by two yields six.

The first and second lines represent the "Way of Earth" (yielding and firm); the third and fourth lines represent the "Way of Man" (benevolence and righteousness); the fifth and sixth lines represent the "Way of Heaven" (yin and yang).

While this explanation is neat, we can press further: Why "doubling them" (liǎng zhī)$33 Why not "tripling them" (sān zhī) to get nine$34

The answer likely lies in the fundamental nature of yin-yang thought—all things can ultimately be reduced to two sides, yin and yang. Heaven has yin and yang (sun and moon); Earth has yin and yang (mountains and marshes); Man has yin and yang (male and female). "Doubling" is not a mathematical operation but reflects a fundamental ontological belief: The entire cosmos operates on a yin-yang duality.

The configuration of six lines allows a hexagram to fully express the yin-yang changes and interactions pertaining to the three realms—Heaven, Earth, and Man—which constitutes a complete model of the "movements of the world." The auspiciousness or inauspiciousness of each line is intimately related to its "position" (wèi) within this model and its "relationship" (yìng, bǐ, chéng, chéng) with other lines. This returns to "observing their convergence and connection"—the convergence and passage among the lines determine the fortune of each line.

III. The Dynamic Essence of the Yao

The Xiang is a static representation of structure; the Yao is a dynamic representation of process. This distinction can be confirmed by examining the actual practice of divination.

When we use the yarrow stalk method to cast a hexagram, we obtain a "primary hexagram" (běn guà, 本卦) and several "changing lines" (biàn yáo, 变爻). The overall image of the primary hexagram is the Xiang, while the specific changing lines are the Yao. The position of the changing line indicates the key node in the current situation where change is occurring.

For example, obtaining the Tai Hexagram (Earth over Heaven, ☷☰) with the 3rd line changing. The "Xiang" tells us: the current situation is one of peace and accord where Heaven and Earth communicate. The "Yao" (the 3rd line) tells us: within this overall peaceful structure, the position of the 3rd line is undergoing change—specifically, the yang energy is rising from the highest position of the lower trigram, about to enter the realm of the upper trigram. The 3rd line statement reads: "There is no flat ground that is not eventually sloped; there is no going that does not return. Perseverance in difficulty incurs no blame." This means: there is no eternally level road, nor a journey that only goes out and never returns—within the peace of Tai, the seed of transformation is already contained.

This is the subtlety of the Yao: It not only tells you the current structure (the Xiang), but also where the structure is changing and in what manner (the Yao), and whether the trend of this change is auspicious or inauspicious (the Statement).

Chapter 8: The Unity of Xiang and Yao — The Complete Architecture of the Zhou Yi

I. Xiang as the Basis of Yao; Yao as the Elaboration of Xiang

The sequence in the scripture—mentioning Xiang first, then Yao—carries deep significance.

The Xiang is the grasp of the world’s zé (deep structure); the Yao is the grasp of the world’s dòng (process of change). Epistemologically, we must first understand the structure of things before we can understand their changes—because change always occurs within a certain structure. Without structure, change has no anchor; without change, structure lacks vitality.

The Xici Shang Zhuan (Chapter 2) states:

"The Sage establishes the trigrams, observes the images (xiang), attaches statements to them to illuminate auspiciousness and inauspiciousness; firmness and yielding push against each other, giving rise to transformation."

"Establishing the trigrams and observing the images" (shè guà guān xiàng, 设卦观象) is the first step—establishing the structure; "attaching statements to illuminate auspiciousness and inauspiciousness" is the second step—describing the change and its trend; "firmness and yielding push against each other, giving rise to transformation" is the third step—revealing the dynamic root of change.

It also states:

"Therefore, what the superior man dwells upon and rests in is the sequence (xù, 序) of the Yi; what he delights in and plays with are the statements of the Yao. Thus, when dwelling, the superior man observes the images and delights in the statements; when moving, he observes the changes and delights in the divination."

"Dwelling, observing the images" (jū zé guān xiàng, 居则观象)—when at rest, observe the hexagram image to grasp the overall structure; "moving, observing the changes" (dòng zé guān biàn, 动则观变)—when acting, pay attention to the line changes to grasp the specific direction. This is the division of labor and cooperation between Xiang and Yao in practical application.

II. Xiang Pertaining to Substance (Tǐ), Yao Pertaining to Function (Yòng)

To borrow the terminology of the Song Dynasty Neo-Confucians, the Xiang belongs to "substance" (tǐ), and the Yao belongs to "function" (yòng). But this is not a simple division of substance and function—in the Zhou Yi, "substance" and "function" interpenetrate.

Every Xiang inherently contains the potential for change (yòng within tǐ); every Yao presupposes a structural framework (tǐ within yòng). The Xiang of Qian is Heaven, but the six Yao of Qian, from hidden to soaring to overreaching, display the complete process of Heaven's operation—the Xiang becomes dynamic within the Yao. Conversely, the judgment of auspiciousness or inauspiciousness for every Yao relies on its position within the overall structure of the hexagram image—the Yao finds its positioning within the Xiang.

Wang Bi, in his Zhou Yi Lüeli, Ming Xiang (Brief Notes on the Zhou Yi, Illuminating the Image), states:

"The Image, it is what expresses meaning. Words, they are what clarify the Image. Nothing expresses meaning as well as the Image, and nothing clarifies the Image as well as words. Words arise from the Image, so one may follow the words to observe the Image; the Image arises from meaning, so one may follow the Image to observe the meaning. Meaning is exhausted by the Image, and the Image is made manifest by the words. Therefore, words serve to clarify the Image; having grasped the Image, one forgets the words; the Image serves to preserve meaning; having grasped the meaning, one forgets the Image."

Wang Bi’s exposition is often simplified to the dictum "forget the Image to grasp the Meaning." In reality, he precisely describes the progressive relationship between the three layers of "Meaning → Image → Statement" (i.e., Zé → Xiang → Ci). The "meaning of the world" (zé) is the most profound texture (the meaning); the Xiang is the taking of the image of that meaning; the Ci (attached statement) is the verbalization of the Image. The three are inextricably linked and none can be dispensed with.

III. Different Emphasis in Historical Interpretations

The different schools of Yi study reflect different emphases on this chapter:

The Han School of Image and Number (Xiang Shu Pai) (e.g., Meng Xi, Jiao Yan Shou, Jing Fang) focused on the "Xiang." They developed complex theories like the Trigram Energy (gua qi), Natal Embracing (nà jiǎ), Flying and Submerged (fei fu), etc., integrating almost everything in the cosmos into the system of trigram images. This school represents an extreme development of the first half of the chapter: "The Sage perceived the profundities of the world, and simulated them according to their outward forms; he depicted them according to what was appropriate for the things, and thus he is called the Xiang."

The Wei-Jin School of Rationale and Principle (Yi Li Pai) (e.g., Wang Bi, Han Kangbo) emphasized "meaning," advocating "forgetting the Image to grasp the Meaning" (dé yì wàng xiàng, 得意忘象) and "sweeping away the Image to return to Rationale." They argued that excessive preoccupation with images and numbers obscured the underlying principles, advocating for direct apprehension of the rationale of the trigrams and lines. This school, in a sense, stressed the latter half of the passage—"attaching statements to determine auspiciousness and inauspiciousness"—as the Ci (Rationale) is the ultimate goal, and the Xiang is merely the means.

The Song Dynasty Neo-Confucians (e.g., Cheng Yi, Zhu Xi) attempted to balance image-number and rationale-principle. Cheng Yi's Yichuan Yizhuan stressed rationale without abandoning image; Zhu Xi's Zhou Yi Benyi emphasized original meaning (the function of divination) while incorporating rationale, each with a different focus but all attempting synthesis.

The Qing Dynasty Philologists (Pǔ Xué Jiā) (e.g., Hui Dong, Jiao Xun, Zhang Huiyan) returned to the path of image and number, using rigorous textual criticism to reconstruct the Han Dynasty system of image-number learning, correcting the tendency of Song scholars to engage in empty talk about rationale.

These different approaches to Yi study are actually developments of different facets of this chapter. If we return to the scripture itself, we find that the design of the scripture emphasizes the balance of Xiang and Yao, the balance of "structure" and "process," and the balance of "observation" and "decision-making"—any interpretation that leans too heavily on one side will miss the complete intention of the text.

Chapter 9: Deeper Inquiry — What Question is This Passage Answering$1

I. The Intent of the Xici Zhuan

To understand the deeper meaning of a passage, we must know the question that motivated its writing.

The Xici Zhuan (Upper and Lower Chapters) is the most philosophically profound text of the Yi Zhuan (The Ten Wings). Unlike the Tuan Zhuan or Xiang Zhuan, which explain hexagrams and lines sequentially, the Xici Zhuan discusses the fundamental principles of the Zhou Yi from a higher perspective. It can be said that the Xici Zhuan answers these fundamental questions: "What is the Yi$2 Why is it effective$3 How did it originate$4"

The discussion of "Xiang" and "Yao" in this chapter provides the core answer to the question, "What is the essence of the Yi$5" The author of the Xici Zhuan (whether Confucius himself or his later disciples) tells us here:

The essence of the Yi is two complementary symbolic systems—the "Xiang" system and the "Yao" system. The "Xiang" system is used to express the deep structure of the world’s myriad things; the "Yao" system is used to express the world’s process of change. Together, they constitute a complete tool for cognition and decision-making.

II. Why Are Two Systems Needed$6

This returns to the distinction between zé and dòng.

We can imagine: If the world contained only zé but no dòng—that is, if myriad things had deep structures but did not change—then only the Xiang would be necessary. A fixed structural diagram would suffice to describe the entire world.

But the world has dòng—myriad things are constantly changing. A single, fixed Xiang cannot capture the richness and directionality of change. Thus, the Yao is needed—a dimension of time and change must be introduced upon the basis of the Xiang.

Conversely, if the world contained only dòng but no zé—if things constantly changed but had no deep structure—then change would be chaotic and disordered, impossible to grasp or predict. But the reality is that while change is complex, it possesses an internal order (huì tōng), which is the manifestation of zé.

Therefore, zé and dòng, Xiang and Yao, are mutually prerequisite and inseparable pairs. The Xiang provides the structural framework for understanding change; the Yao displays the specific path of change within that framework.

This is an exquisitely subtle theoretical design, whose philosophical depth is in no way inferior to any later cognitive system in any civilization.

III. Comparative Reflection with Ancient Greek Philosophy

If we broaden our perspective to comparative philosophy, we find astonishing parallels between the "Xiang-Yao" dual framework established in the Xici Zhuan and certain core propositions in Ancient Greek philosophy.

Heraclitus said, "All things flow" (panta rhei). This corresponds to the "movements of the world" (dòng). Parmenides said, "Being is one, unchanging." This corresponds to the "profundities of the world" (zé).

In Greek philosophy, the opposition between Heraclitus and Parmenides was seen as the fundamental tension in Western metaphysics—flux versus eternity, the many versus the one, becoming versus being. Plato attempted to reconcile this tension through "Ideas" (eidos): the Ideas are eternal and unchanging (zé), while the phenomenal world is in constant flux (dòng), and the Ideas manifest in the phenomena through "participation."

But Pre-Qin Chinese thought adopted a completely different method of reconciliation—it did not use abstract "Ideas" to govern change. Instead, it used "Xiang" to capture zé and "Yao" to model dòng, allowing both to coexist within the structure of the same hexagram. This method of reconciliation does not require presupposing an "Idea world" independent of phenomena, but rather grasps the unity of structure and change directly within the phenomena.

In this sense, the "Zé-Xiang / Dòng-Yao" framework established in this chapter constitutes an epistemological construction that is more pragmatic, closer to experience, yet equally profound as Plato’s theory of Forms.

Chapter 10: Historical Examples — The Practical Application of Xiang and Yao

I. Divination Examples in the Zuo Zhuan

The Zuo Zhuan is the richest source of Pre-Qin divination records. By analyzing these examples, we can see how Xiang and Yao cooperated in actual divinations.

Case 1: The Birth of Duke Li of Chen (Zuo Zhuan, 22nd Year of Duke Zhuang)

"A historian of Zhou showed the Zhou Yi to the Marquis of Chen. The Marquis made a divination, obtaining Guan (Observation, ☴☷) changing to Pi (Stagnation, ☰☷). He said: 'This is called observing the glory of the state; it is beneficial to serve as a guest to the King. Will he succeed the Marquis of Chen in ruling$7 Not in this person, but in his descendants in another state. Not in this body, but in his descendants. Glory means something that shines from afar and from elsewhere. Kun is Earth; Xun is Wind; Qian is Heaven. Wind acts as Heaven over Earth, resulting in Mountain. Having the material of a mountain illuminated by Heavenly glory, one thus resides above the Earth; therefore it is said, observe the glory of the state, it is beneficial to serve as a guest to the King. In the courtyard are a hundred vessels, offered with jade and silk—the beauty of Heaven and Earth are all present; therefore it is said, it is beneficial to serve as a guest to the King.'"

Analysis: In this divination, the diviner first obtained the primary hexagram Guan (☴☷) changing to Pi (☰☷).

The Xiang Level: The Xiang of Guan is "Wind moving over Earth," and its hexagram statement is "Washing without offering, sincerity is solemn." The diviner took the Xiang of Guan—Wind moving over the Earth, displaying the image of observation and reverence.

The Yao Level: The changing line is the 6th line of the 4th position, whose statement is "Observing the glory of the state, it is beneficial to serve as a guest to the King." Based on this line statement, the diviner judged that the descendants of the Marquis of Chen would be honored in another state.

Subsequently, the diviner analyzed the symbolic meanings of the upper and lower trigrams—Kun as Earth, Xun as Wind, Qian as Heaven—synthesizing these Xiang to deduce the specific context.

This case perfectly illustrates the cooperation of Xiang and Yao: first grasping the overall pattern from the whole hexagram image (Xiang), then judging the specific direction from the concrete line statement (Yao), and finally synthesizing the image and statement to reach a conclusion. This is the practical embodiment of "The Sage perceived the profundities of the world (Xiang)... perceived the movements of the world (Yao)."

Case 2: The Battle of Han between Qin and Jin (Zuo Zhuan, 15th Year of Duke Xi)

"Initially, Duke Xian of Jin made a divination regarding the marriage of Bo Ji, obtaining Gui Mei (Sisters in Opposition, ☳☱) changing to Kui (Opposition, ☲☱). The historian Su interpreted it saying: 'It is inauspicious. Its line statement says: The official slices the sheep, yet there is no reward. The woman carries the basket, yet there is no gift. The western neighbor demands words, which cannot be repaid. Gui Mei changing to Kui is like having no mutual support.'..."

In this case, the divination resulted in Gui Mei (☳☱) changing to Kui (☲☱). Historian Su's judgment synthesized the hexagram image (Gui Mei → Kui, symbolizing the "young daughter marrying" changing to "being alienated and divergent," indicating an inauspicious marriage) and the line statements (the specific descriptions like "the official slices the sheep, yet there is no reward"), concluding clearly as "inauspicious."

More profoundly, the reason Historian Su could make this judgment was because he "observed their convergence and connection" (guān qí huì tōng)—he saw the trend of transformation from Gui Mei to Kui, recognized the meaning of "divergence" contained within this transformation, and then "enacted their rites and regulations" (offering advice on state affairs based on this) and "attached statements to determine their auspiciousness and inauspiciousness" (clearly judging it "inauspicious").

II. Confucius and the Zhou Yi

The relationship between Confucius and the Zhou Yi is a major topic in the history of Yi studies. The Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) states:

"Confucius, in his later years, delighted in the Yi, and composed the commentary on the Judgments (Tuan), the Attached Wings (Xici), the Images (Xiang), the Explanation of the Trigrams (Shuo Gua), and the Words of the Wenyan (Wenyan). He read the Yi so much that the leather thongs binding the bamboo slips wore out three times. He said: 'If you grant me a few more years, I can master the Yi completely.'"

Confucius "in his later years delighted in the Yi," indicating that his deep study of the Zhou Yi occurred late in life. "The leather thongs wore out three times"—the leather cords binding the bamboo slips broke three times, testifying to the diligence of his study.

The Yao Chapter from the Mawangdui Silk Manuscripts records an important statement by Confucius on the Yi:

"The Master said: 'Regarding the Yi, I no longer focus on the divination rituals (zhù bǔ); I observe only its virtue and righteousness (dé yì, 德义). Through subtle apprehension (yōu zàn, 幽赞) one reaches the numbers (shù, 数); by clarifying the numbers, one reaches virtue. Only then can the benevolent man enact righteousness. If one apprehends without reaching the numbers, one becomes a shaman; if one possesses the numbers without reaching virtue, one becomes a mere scribe.'"

This passage is extremely important. Confucius said he studied the Yi not for divination, but to observe its "virtue and righteousness." However, he did not deny the importance of "number" (shù, referring to images and numbers)—he emphasized "through subtle apprehension one reaches the numbers; by clarifying the numbers, one reaches virtue," meaning to attain virtue through deep understanding of the images and numbers.

This aligns perfectly with the framework of the Xici Zhuan: first "perceiving zé" (understanding the deep structure), then "simulating the Xiang" (expressing it through images), then "observing huì tōng" (grasping the laws of change), and finally "determining jí and xiōng" (making value judgments). Confucius merely elevated "jí and xiōng" to the level of "virtue and righteousness"—jí and xiōng are not merely judgments of personal gain and loss, but distinctions of moral good and evil.

III. Xunzi on "Those Good at the Yi Do Not Divinate"

In the Xunzi (Da Lüe):

"Those good at the Yi do not engage in divination."

This statement is often cited to illustrate the Confucian emphasis on rationale over image and number. However, if we understand it within the framework of the Xici Zhuan passage, Xunzi’s meaning becomes clearer.

"Those good at the Yi"—those who truly master the Yi. They "do not divine" (bù zhàn, 不占)—they do not need external ritual ceremonies to make judgments. Why$8 Because they have already deeply "perceived" the world's zé and the world's dòng; they can already "observe their convergence and connection" and can accordingly "enact their rites and regulations" and "determine their auspiciousness and inauspiciousness." For such people, the principles of the Yi have been internalized as their wisdom, requiring no external ritual trigger.

This does not negate divination; rather, it suggests that divination is a ladder leading to wisdom—once the summit is reached, the ladder can be set aside. Just as Wang Bi said, "forgetting the Image to grasp the Meaning"—it is not that the Image is unimportant, but that the ultimate goal is the "Meaning"; once the "Meaning" is grasped, the Xiang, as a tool, has completed its mission.

Chapter 11: Synthesis and Reflection on Previous Commentators

I. Zheng Xuan's Interpretation

Zheng Xuan was a great scholar of the Eastern Han, treating the Yi by integrating both image-number and rationale-principle. His commentary on this chapter is unfortunately mostly lost, but we can glean some insight from Kong Yingda’s Zhengyi:

Zheng Xuan glossed zé as "mixed/confused," emphasizing the aspect of the world’s myriad things being complex and multifarious—but relatively neglecting its deeper meaning of "subtle and hard to perceive."

II. Han Kangbo's Interpretation

Han Kangbo inherited Wang Bi’s path of rationale, commenting on this chapter:

"Zé refers to the subtle and deep principles that are hidden and difficult to see. Simulating and comparing serves to accomplish transformation."

Han's gloss directly equates zé with "subtle and deep principle," elevating zé to the level of "Principle" (lǐ, 理)—it is not just "complex and hard to see," but the "ultimate principle that is subtle and deep." This interpretation influenced the direction of later Rationale schools.

III. Kong Yingda's Interpretation

Kong Yingda's Zhou Yi Zhengyi provides a detailed explanation of this chapter:

"The Sage having the means (yǒu yǐ) means the Sage possesses a subtle principle by which he perceives the utmost principle (zhì lǐ, 至理) of the world's profundities (zé). And simulating them according to their outward forms (nǐ zhū qí xíng róng) means measuring and comparing this subtle and profound principle with the outward forms of things. Depicting what is appropriate for the things (xiàng qí wù yí) means that when the Sage draws the trigrams, he depicts what is appropriate for the myriad things. Therefore he is called Xiang because he images the outward forms of the myriad things."

The characteristic of Kong's commentary is its detailed, step-by-step analysis, clearly mapping out the logical progression of the scripture. However, its weakness lies in over-rationalization—he interprets "perceive" (jiàn) as "perceiving with subtle principle," and zé as "ultimate principle." This departs somewhat from the original Pre-Qin meaning of "direct intuition."

IV. Cheng Yi's Interpretation

Cheng Yi in his Yichuan Yizhuan does not directly comment on the Xici Zhuan, but his method of interpreting hexagrams and lines everywhere reflects his understanding of this chapter. A core principle of Cheng Yi's study of the Yi is "Substance and Function share one source; the manifest and the subtle are without gap" (tǐ yòng yī yuán, xiǎn wēi wú jiàn). This is another way of expressing the relationship between zé and Xiang—the deep principle (subtle/ zé) and the outward image (xiǎn / xiàng) are two sides of the same reality, "one source" and "without gap."

Cheng Yi’s interpretation of every hexagram starts with the trigram image (tǐ, Xiang), then analyzes the auspiciousness/inauspiciousness of the line statements (yòng, Yao), and finally proposes lessons on the level of Rationale. This method of interpretation perfectly aligns with the logical sequence of "perceiving zé → simulating Xiang → observing huì tōng → determining jí and xiōng."

V. Zhu Xi's Interpretation

Zhu Xi comments on this chapter in the Zhou Yi Benyi:

"Xiang refers to the upper and lower trigrams of the hexagram, and the statements attached by the Duke of Zhou. This speaks of the Sage, having established the Yi, attaching statements based on the already existing images."

A notable feature of Zhu Xi’s interpretation is his emphasis on "based on the already existing images" (yīn yǒu yǐ zhī xiàng). The Sage does not create the Xiang out of thin air; rather, because there already exist "images" (Xiang) in Heaven and Earth (the external manifestations of zé), the Sage merely discovers and expresses them. This view aligns with our analysis above: the Xiang is not subjective construction but objective discovery.

Zhu Xi also particularly emphasized the divinatory function of the Zhou Yi. In his Yi Xue Qimeng, he stated: "The Yi is fundamentally a book of divination." In his view, "attaching statements to determine auspiciousness and inauspiciousness" is the original face of the Yi; rationale is derived from divination, not the other way around. While this position has been criticized by some later scholars, it is arguably correct based on the actual practice of high antiquity Yi studies.

VI. Wang Fuzhi's Interpretation

Wang Fuzhi (late Ming/early Qing) offered profound philosophical distillations of Yi studies in his Zhou Yi Neizhuan and Zhou Yi Waizhuan. Regarding this chapter, Wang especially stressed the ontological primacy of "movement" (dòng):

"The movements of the world cannot be exhausted by one formulation." (Zhou Yi Waizhuan, Vol. 5)

In Wang Fuzhi's view, the "movements of the world" are the fundamental reality of the cosmos—it is not that stillness exists first and then motion arises, but that motion itself is the most fundamental thing. The zé is not a static structure divorced from dòng, but the order inherently contained within dòng.

This interpretation reverses the relationship between zé and dòng: it is not that zé (structure) comes before dòng (change), but that dòng (change) itself inherently contains zé (order). This "primacy of motion" stance stands in clear contrast to the "primacy of Principle" stance of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism and provides an important intellectual resource for later studies of Chinese philosophy.

Chapter 12: Synthesis — The Position of This Chapter within the Xici Zhuan and the Entire Yi Zhuan

I. The Theoretical Structure of the Xici Shang Zhuan

The Xici Shang Zhuan consists of twelve chapters (following Han Kangbo's division), and its theoretical structure can be broadly outlined as follows:

• Chapters 1–3: Discuss the Dao of Heaven and Earth and the Substance (tǐ) of the Yi (Simplicity of Qian and Kun, the Dao of Transformation).
• Chapters 4–6: Discuss the function of the Sage and the Accomplishment (gōng) of the Yi (Changing words, observing images and divination, promoting virtue and expanding undertaking).
• Chapters 7–9: Discuss the essence of the Yi and the meaning of Xiang and Yao (This chapter, Chapter 8, contains the core focus).
• Chapters 10–12: Discuss the application of the Yi and its Divine Virtue (Exploring the profound and minute, attaining the ultimate depth and subtlety).

This chapter (Chapter 8) occupies the theoretical pivot of the entire upper treatise. It formally defines the two basic concepts of the Yi—"Xiang" and "Yao." Before it, preceding chapters established the background of the Dao of Heaven and Earth, the principles of change, and the virtue of the Sage; after it, the subsequent chapters expand upon the discussion of the Yi's application methods and ultimate state, building upon the foundation of "Xiang" and "Yao."

It can be said that this chapter is the theoretical hinge of the Xici Shang Zhuan—it connects the ontological groundwork laid previously with the methodological development that follows.

II. Echoes with Other Chapters of the Xici Shang Zhuan

This chapter is not isolated but forms close echoes with other sections of the Xici Shang Zhuan.

Echoing Chapter 1:

"Heaven is venerable and Earth is humble; Qian and Kun are thereby established. Humility and loftiness are arrayed, establishing the noble and the base. Motion and stillness have their constants, establishing firmness and yielding."

Chapter 1 establishes the basic framework of the order of Heaven and Earth (venerability/humility, nobility/baseness, firmness/yielding), which is the macroscopic manifestation of the "profundities of the world" (zé). This chapter explains how the Sage transforms this framework into the "Xiang."

Echoing Chapter 4:

"The Yi corresponds to Heaven and Earth, thus it can encompass the Dao of Heaven and Earth. Looking upward to observe the celestial patterns, and looking downward to examine the terrestrial models, thus one knows the causes of the dark and the bright."

Chapter 4 discusses why the Yi can "encompass the Dao of Heaven and Earth"—because it "corresponds" (zhǔn, 准, i.e., aligns with) Heaven and Earth. This chapter then specifies how this alignment is achieved—by "perceiving zé and simulating the Xiang" and by "perceiving dòng and modeling the Yao."

Echoing Chapter 10:

"The Yi has four ways of the Sage’s Dao: in speaking, one values its statements (cí); in moving, one values its changes (biàn); in constructing artifacts, one values its images (xiàng); in divination, one values its oracle (zhàn)."

Chapter 10 summarizes the four functions of the Yi—Statements, Change, Images, and Divination. Among these, "Statements" and "Images" correspond to the "Xiang" in this chapter (simulating forms, depicting appropriateness), while "Change" and "Divination" correspond to the "Yao" in this chapter (observing huì tōng, determining jí and xiōng).

Echoing Chapter 12:

"The Yi is what the Sage uses to reach the utmost depth and research the subtle (jí shēn ér yán jī, 极深而研几). Only through depth can one connect the intentions of the world; only through subtlety can one accomplish the tasks of the world."

Chapter 12 discusses the ultimate state of the Yi—"reaching the utmost depth and researching the subtle." "Depth" corresponds to zé (the subtle and hard-to-see principle); "Subtlety" (jī, 几) corresponds to dòng (the budding and trend of change). The Sage grasps zé through "reaching depth" and grasps dòng through "researching subtlety"—this is the expression of the cognitive process discussed in this chapter at a higher level.

III. The Position of This Chapter in the Entire Yi Zhuan

If we expand the view to the entire Yi Zhuan (The Ten Wings), the position of this chapter becomes even more prominent.

The Tuan Zhuan (Commentary on the Judgments) explains the hexagram statements, belonging to the level of "Xiang." The Xiang Zhuan (Commentary on the Images) (Great Image, Small Image) explains the hexagram images and line images, also belonging to the level of "Xiang." The Wenyan Zhuan (Words of the Wenyan) offers an in-depth exposition of the Qian and Kun hexagrams, encompassing both "Xiang" and "Yao." The Shuo Gua Zhuan (Explanation of the Trigrams) systematically explains the taking of images for the eight trigrams, belonging exclusively to the level of "Xiang." The Xugu Gua Zhuan (Hexagram Sequence Commentary) explains the ordering of the sixty-four hexagrams, involving the logical relationship between the "Xiang." The Za Gua Zhuan (Miscellaneous Trigrams Commentary) briefly summarizes the meaning of the hexagrams, belonging to the level of "Xiang" and "Meaning."

In contrast, the Xici Zhuan provides the theoretical summary and philosophical elevation of all the above. This chapter, being the core of the Xici Shang Zhuan, actually provides the theoretical bedrock for the entire Yi Zhuan—it explains what "Xiang" and "Yao" are, why they exist, and how they are generated, thus providing the meta-theoretical basis for all specific commentaries and expositions.

Conclusion: The Primordial Code of Xiang and Yao

Let us finally return to the scripture itself:

"The Sage perceived the profundities (zé) of the world, and simulated them according to their outward forms (xíng róng); he depicted them according to what was appropriate for the things (wù yí), and thus he is called the Xiang (象, Image). The Sage perceived the movements (dòng) of the world, and observed their convergence and connection (huì tōng); he thereby enacted the rites and regulations (diǎn lǐ), attached statements to them to determine auspiciousness and inauspiciousness (jí xiōng), and thus he is called the Yao (爻, Line)."

After this in-depth investigation, we can offer the following comprehensive understanding of this passage:

The myriad things in the world are numerous, complex, and subtle, containing a deep, hidden order and texture (zé). The Sage, with his intuitive perception surpassing that of ordinary men (jiàn), grasps these deep textures. By comparing the external forms of myriad things (nǐ zhū qí xíng róng) and depicting the appropriate relationships within them (xiàng qí wù yí), he condenses these textures into a system of symbolic expression—this is the "Xiang."

The myriad things in the world are ceaselessly transforming (dòng). The Sage, with his equally profound insight, grasps the critical points of convergence and passages within the process of change (huì tōng). Based on these laws, he establishes the fundamental order and norms of human society (diǎn lǐ), and attaches textual statements beneath the trigram lines to judge the auspiciousness and inauspiciousness of the changing trends (xì cí yǐ duàn jí xiōng)—this is the "Yao."

The Xiang and the Yao—one static and one dynamic, one substance and one function, one structure and one process—together constitute the two great cornerstones of the magnificent classic, the Zhou Yi. They are not subjective inventions of the Sage, but profound discoveries and exquisite expressions of the objective order of Heaven, Earth, and all things.

On a deeper level, this passage reveals the core secret of human cognition: We cannot directly present the entirety of the world's reality (zé / dòng), but we can approximate, express, and utilize it by establishing a symbolic system through taking images (qǔ xiàng) and attaching statements (xì cí). This symbolic system is not reality itself, but it is the most reliable bridge to reality.

This is the "Primordial Code of Xiang and Yao"—not some mysterious divine revelation, but the result of cooperation at the highest level between human reason and intuition. It was born from the great practice of looking upward and downward by the Sages of high antiquity, matured through the deep reflection of Pre-Qin thinkers, and transmitted and developed over thousands of years. To this day, it remains the most unique and profound cognitive heritage of Chinese civilization.

The Xici Shang Zhuan (Chapter 12) concludes the entire treatise with a definitive summary:

"The Master said: 'Writing does not exhaust words, and words do not exhaust meaning. If so, how can the Sage’s meaning not be perceived$9 The Master said: The Sage establishes the Image to exhaust meaning, establishes the Trigrams to exhaust true and false feelings, attaches Statements to exhaust words, transforms and connects them to exhaust advantage, and stimulates and inspires them to exhaust the Divine.'"

These five "exhaustions" (jìn, 尽) are the final praise of the function of "Xiang" and "Yao" discussed in this chapter—they are not crude tools, but great creations capable of "exhausting meaning," "exhausting true and false feelings," "exhausting words," "exhausting advantage," and "exhausting the Divine."

The world's zé becomes visible due to the "Xiang"; the world's dòng becomes knowable due to the "Yao." This is the primordial code of the Zhou Yi, and the fundamental way the Chinese civilization understands the world.

End of Text

Author: Xuanji Editorial DepartmentWord Count: Approx. 12,000 characters

References:

1. Zhou Yi Zhengyi (Corrected Meanings of the Zhou Yi), by Wang Bi (annotated), explained by Kong Yingda (commentary), Zhonghua Book Company.
2. Zhou Yi Benyi (Original Meanings of the Zhou Yi), by Zhu Xi, Zhonghua Book Company.
3. Yichuan Yizhuan (The Yi Transmitted by Cheng Yi of Yichuan), by Cheng Yi, Zhonghua Book Company.
4. Zhou Yi Neizhuan and Zhou Yi Waizhuan (Inner and Outer Commentaries on the Zhou Yi), by Wang Fuzhi, Yuelu Publishing House.
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7. Shuowen Jiezi (Explanations of Simple and Compound Characters), by Zhang Zhenglang et al., Zhonghua Book Company.
8. Zuo Zhuan (Commentary of Zuo), annotated by Du Yu (Jin), explained by Kong Yingda (Tang), Zhonghua Book Company.
9. Shuowen Jiezi Zhu (Annotated Explanations of Simple and Compound Characters), by Duan Yucai (Qing), Shanghai Classics Publishing House.
10. Pre-Qin Classics: Analects, Mencius, Tao Te Ching, Zhuangzi, Xunzi, Liji (Book of Rites).