Interpreting and Investigating the Chapter: 'The Sage Perceived the Profundities of the World' — The Primordial Code of *Xiang* and *Yao*

Chapter 2: From Zé to Xiang — The Great Leap of Cognition

I. "Simulating According to Their Outward Forms" (Nǐ Zhū Qí Xíng Róng) — Mimicry and Abstraction

The next step in the scripture is critical: "and simulated them according to their outward forms (*nǐ zhū qí xíng róng, 拟诸其形容)."

"Nǐ" (Shuowen): "To measure/compare." Duan Yucai comments: "To measure means to model/regulate. To plan." In the Pre-Qin context, the basic meaning of nǐ is "to compare," "to simulate," or "to take as a standard." For example, in the Liji (Qu Li Shang): "When comparing one person to another, one must compare within the same category." This means comparison must be made among peers.

The two characters "form" (xíng, 形) and "countenance/appearance" (róng, 容) were not a single term in the Pre-Qin period, but two parallel concepts. Xíng refers to external physical shape; róng refers to posture, facial appearance, or countenance. Combined, they denote the external, visible, and describable appearance of a thing.

Thus, "nǐ zhū qí xíng róng" means: To compare the subtle and hidden deep textures (zé) with the outward forms (xíng róng) they manifest, in order to simulate and express them.

This is an extremely important cognitive step. Zé is latent and cannot be directly presented, but it is always revealed through the xíng róng of myriad things. For instance: the movement of Heaven is hidden and imperceptible, but the rising and setting of the sun, moon, and stars are visible; the vitality of the Earth is hidden, but the flourishing and fading of plants, the ebb and flow of rivers, are visible. What the Sage does is use these visible xíng róng to approximate the imperceptible zé.

In modern epistemological terms, this process is grasping the essence through phenomena. However, the uniqueness of Pre-Qin thought is that it did not sharply separate phenomenon from essence, as later Western philosophy did. Instead, it held that the phenomenon itself is the "manifestation" of the essence—xíng róng is the external expression of zé, and zé is the internal basis of xíng róng. They are inseparable, differing only in the distinction between "manifest" and "hidden."

II. "Depicting What is Appropriate for the Things" (Xiàng Qí Wù Yí) — Taking Images and Suitability

"Xiàng qí wù yí" is the second step immediately following "nǐ zhū qí xíng róng."

"Xiàng" here is a verb, meaning "to draw a likeness," "to describe," or "to take an image from." In Classical Chinese, "xiàng" (像, likeness) and "xiàng" (象, image/archetype) are often interchangeable. Shuowen defines "xiàng" as "the great beast of Southern Yue." By extension, it refers to anything visible with a form. However, "xiàng" emphasizes the action of "likeness" or "comparison."

"Wù yí"—this is a term well worth scrutinizing. Wù means myriad things; yí means appropriate, suitable, or fitting. Used together, "wù yí" means the appropriate state for each thing, and the suitable position and relationship for each thing. The Zhouli (Dì Guān, Dà Sī Tú) states: "By the methods of soil suitability (tǔ yí), distinguish the names and things of the twelve types of soil." Here, tǔ yí means the products suitable for growth in each type of soil. By extension, "wù yí" means the inherent law and relational pattern that is appropriate for each thing.

Therefore, "xiàng qí wù yí" means: To depict the state and relationship appropriate for each thing by means of taking images.

Combining "nǐ zhū qí xíng róng" and "xiàng qí wù yí": the Sage first compares the external forms (xíng róng) of myriad things, and then further depicts the internal appropriate relationships (wù yí), ultimately forming the "Xiang" (Image).

This process reveals a profound epistemological principle: The Xiang is not a simple imitation of any single concrete thing, but rather a "typified expression" extracted through the comprehensive comparison of the forms (xíng róng) and the appropriatenesses (wù yí) of myriad things.

For example, why are the Xiang of the Qian trigram associated with Heaven, with firmness, with vigor, with the ruler, with the father, with the horse, with the head, with metal, and with jade$11 These seemingly disparate things are grouped under the same Xiang because they share the same wù yí—firmness, dominance, being in the superior position, and ceaseless motion. The Sage "perceived" this underlying texture (zé) hidden within Heaven, ruler, father, and horse. Through "simulating their outward forms" (nǐ zhū qí xíng róng) and "depicting what is appropriate for the things" (xiàng qí wù yí), he finally fixed this shared texture with the symbol "Qian" and the graphical representation "☰." This is the birth of the Xiang.

III. "Thus He is Called Xiang" — The Solemnity of Naming

"Thus he is called Xiang" (是故谓之象, shì gù wèi zhī xiàng). This is not a mere definition but a solemn act of naming.

In Pre-Qin thought, "naming" was never arbitrary. Tao Te Ching (Chapter 1): "The name that can be named is not the constant name." Analects (13.3): "If names be not correct, language is in accordance with the truth of things." The name is the human grasp and fixation of a thing's essence. To name something is to confirm that human cognition of that thing has reached a communicable level.

"Thus he is called Xiang"—because the product of this entire process (perceiving zé → simulating xíng róng → depicting wù yí) is the Xiang.

But we must ask: Why is it called Xiang, and not something else$12

The original meaning of the character xiàng (象) is the elephant. The oracle bone script for xiàng depicts the profile of an elephant—long trunk, large ears, thick legs. Wild elephants certainly roamed the Central Plains during the Shang Dynasty, making the elephant one of the largest terrestrial animals visible to the people of the time.

From this original meaning, xiàng derives several layers of meaning:

First Layer: Form, Appearance. Because the elephant is huge and its form is distinct, xiàng extended to mean all visible forms. Second Layer: Sign, Trace. Where an elephant walks, it leaves huge tracks; thus, xiàng extended to mean the traces or signs left by things. Third Layer: Emulation, Taking the Image. Xiàng as a verb means "to imitate the form of something." In the Shangshu (Yao Dian): "Emulate (xiàng) the exemplary penalties." That is, using imagery to display punishments.

All three layers coexist in "Thus he is called Xiang": the Xiang is the image created by the Sage (the trigram/hexagram image), it is the trace/sign of Heaven and Earth’s myriad things (zhēng xiàng, 征象), and it is formed by emulating the myriad things (xiào fǎ, 效法).

Han Kangbo commented on this phrase: "Xiàng, is xiàng (likeness)." Kong Yingda elaborated: "It means depicting what is appropriate for things." Cheng Yi in his Yichuan Yizhuan stated: "The Sage establishes the trigrams to image the affairs of the world, just as he takes images." Zhu Xi in the Zhou Yi Benyi noted: "Xiang refers to the upper and lower trigrams of a hexagram, as well as the words attached by the Duke of Zhou."

While each exegesis emphasizes a different point, the core meaning is consistent: The Xiang is the great product of the Sage transforming the world’s zé into a form that is visible, transmissible, and usable for cognition.

IV. The Antiquity of Xiang Thought

If we cast our view further back to high antiquity, the origin of Xiang thought becomes clearer.

In the early stages of human cognition, abstract concepts were not yet developed. The basic method for understanding the world was "taking the image" (qǔ xiàng, 取象)—grasping abstract, imperceptible principles through concrete, perceptible images. This was not a "primitive" mode of thought; on the contrary, it was the oldest and most vital cognitive approach.

Archaeological discoveries—the painted pottery patterns of the Neolithic period, the jade carvings, the rock art—are all products of Xiang thought. The human-faced fish pattern on pottery from Banpo, the Jade Pig-Dragon and C-shaped Dragons from Hongshan culture, the Divine Man-Beast Face motif from Liangzhu culture—these designs were not mere decoration; they were the Pre-ancient people’s representation (qǔ xiàng) of the world's zé.

The image of the Dragon is a prime example. The Dragon is not any existing animal but a composite image created by the ancients through integrating, extracting, and reorganizing features of the snake, fish, bird, deer, and horse. It "simulated" the "outward forms" (xíng róng) of various animals and "depicted the appropriateness" (xiàng qí wù yí) of natural forces like water, clouds, thunder, and lightning, ultimately becoming a comprehensive Xiang representing the highest vitality and power of transformation. This process is strikingly similar to what the Xici Zhuan describes: "The Sage perceived the profundities of the world, and simulated them according to their outward forms; he depicted them according to what was appropriate for the things, and thus he is called the Xiang."

The Eight Trigrams are similar. The three unbroken lines (☰) take the image of Heaven’s wholeness and the relentless vigor of the yang energy; the three broken lines (☷) take the image of Earth’s capacity to carry and contain, and the gentleness of the yin energy. These symbols, reduced to their utmost simplicity, condense the ancients' deepest insights into the texture of Heaven, Earth, and all things.

As Mr. Wen Yiduo pointed out in his Zhou Yi Yizheng Leizuan, the formation of the trigram symbolic system was an inevitable outcome of symbolic thought reaching a certain stage—it marked humanity's ability to use extremely concise symbols to encompass extremely complex world experiences.

V. Inquiry: Why Xiang and Not "Concept"$13

This is a profound question. Western philosophy, since the time of Ancient Greece, followed the path of "conceptualization"—grasping the essence of things through logical definition. Plato’s "Ideas" (eidos) and Aristotle’s "Categories" (kategoria) both constructed cognitive systems through abstract concepts.

But Pre-Qin Chinese thought followed a different path—"taking the image" (qǔ xiàng). This was not because Pre-Qin thinkers lacked the ability for logical inference (the Mohists and the School of Names, like Hui Shi and Gongsun Long, possessed considerable logical acuity), but because they keenly realized that concepts divide the organic connections between things, whereas the Xiang preserves these connections.

A concept can only point to a class of things, its boundaries are clear—a "horse" is a horse; it cannot simultaneously be "firm," "Heaven," or "ruler." But a Xiang can point to multiple levels simultaneously—the Xiang of Qian is Heaven, firmness, vigor, ruler, father, horse, head, etc. These diverse things are linked together by the thread of the Xiang, forming an organic network of meaning.

This is the greatness of Xiang thought: It is not a reductive thinking (reducing complexity to simplicity), but an analogical thinking (discovering isomorphic relationships between different things).

Immediately following this passage, the Xici Zhuan lists numerous instances of the Xiang:

"Thus, the Xiang—the Sage perceived the profundities of the world, and simulated them according to their outward forms; he depicted them according to what was appropriate for the things, and thus he is called the Xiang."

Here, it is repeatedly emphasized that the foundation of the Xiang lies in the zé—that there truly exists a deep isomorphism among the myriad things of the world. The Sage is not subjectively creating connections, but objectively "perceiving" these connections, and then expressing them in the form of the Xiang.