An Exploration of Pre-Qin Philosophical Origins of "Those Whose Universes are Vast and Stable Emit the Light of Heaven" in Zhuangzi's "Geng Sang Chu"

Part Four: "Tiānmín" and "Tiānzǐ" — Identity Definitions at the Juncture of Heaven and Humanity

Chapter 11: Examination of "What People Abandon is Called the People of Heaven" (Rén Zhī Suǒ Shě, Wèi Zhī Tiānmín)

Section 1: The Meaning of "Tiānmín" (People of Heaven)

"What people abandon (Shě) is called the People of Heaven (Tiānmín)." The type of person that the world bestows upon (or abandons) is called "Heavenly People."

The term "Tiānmín" appears frequently in pre-Qin texts.

Mencius, Wan Zhang I states:

"Heaven brought forth this people, intending that those who knew earlier should awaken those who knew later, those who perceived earlier should awaken those who perceived later. I am one of those among the People of Heaven who perceived earliest. I shall use this Way to awaken these people."

Here, Mencius quotes Yi Yin, where "People of Heaven" means the people created by Heaven—all people are the People of Heaven. However, Yi Yin distinguished himself as the "earliest perceiver among the People of Heaven," meaning he was the first among the people to awaken to the Heavenly Dao.

However, Zhuangzi’s "Tiānmín" differs in meaning from the "Tiānmín" quoted by Mencius. Zhuangzi’s "Tiānmín" specifically refers to those who are abandoned (or provided for) by the world—they exist among humans but belong directly to the Heavenly Dao, rather than being mere subjects of the secular realm.

Section 2: Distinguishing "Tiānmín" from "People" (Rénmín)

Why distinguish "Tiānmín" from "People" (Rénmín)$36 Because in Zhuangzi’s thought, the secular social order has its own structure—ruler/subject, father/son, husband/wife, superior/inferior, noble/base—the people within this structure are Rénmín, subjects belonging to the secular world. "Tiānmín," however, transcends this secular order and belongs directly to the Heavenly Dao.

Zhuangzi, Tian Di (Heaven and Earth), states:

"The ruler of the deep past governed the world without action (Wú Wéi); it was simply the virtue of Heaven."

In antiquity, those who ruled the world governed through non-action, civilizing through Heavenly Virtue. At that time, there was no secular hierarchy; everyone was "Tiānmín." But as the rites decayed in later ages, artificial hierarchies were established, and people became Rénmín—people belonging to the secular ruler.

The value of "Tiānmín" lies in their return to the ancient state—not bound by any secular ruling structure, belonging only to the Heavenly Dao. Though physically present in the world, they are not constrained by its order.

The models of "Tiānmín" in Zhuangzi, Xiaoyao You (Free and Easy Wandering), are Song Rongzi and Liezi:

"Moreover, if the whole world praised him, he would not be moved to increased effort; if the whole world condemned him, he would not be moved to discouragement. Having settled the distinction between inside and outside, and clarified the boundary between honor and disgrace, that is all."

Song Rongzi "if praised, not encouraged; if condemned, not disheartened"—this is the expression of being "abandoned by the world" (worldly judgment cannot affect him) and existing as a "Tiānmín."

However, Zhuangzi believed Song Rongzi "still had not established himself" (Yóu yǒu wèi shù yě)—still lacking something. What was lacking$37 "Having settled the distinction between inside and outside"—he still distinguished between self and world. The true "Tiānmín" must transcend the distinction between inside and outside, achieving the state of "No Self" (Wú Jǐ).

The Utmost Person (Zhì Rén), the Spirit Person (Shén Rén), and the Sage (Shèng Rén) in Xiaoyao You:

"The Utmost Person has no self; the Spirit Person has no merit; the Sage has no name."

"The Utmost Person has no self"—the Utmost Person does not claim an identity. This Utmost Person is the purest form of "Tiānmín"—one who does not even claim the title "Tiānmín" but naturally conforms to the Heavenly Dao.

Section 3: Prototypes of "Tiānmín" in Ancient Legends

In pre-Qin history and legends, which figures can be seen as prototypes of the "Tiānmín"$38

Xu You (许由).

Zhuangzi, Xiaoyao You, recounts:

"Yao offered the world to Xu You, saying: 'When the sun and moon have risen, the small flame of a torch has not yet gone out; is this not difficult for its light$39 When seasonal rains descend, there is still irrigation; is this not labor for its moisture$40 If you, Sir, stood forth and governed the world, and I still held it as a mere placeholder, I feel myself lacking. I request you take the world.' Xu You said: 'You govern the world, and the world is already governed. If I were to replace you, would I be seeking fame$41 Fame is the accessory of reality. Should I be an accessory$42 The wren nests in the deep forest, but uses only one branch; the mole drinks from the river, but is satisfied with one bellyful. Go back, my lord! I have no use for the world!'"

Xu You refused Yao’s abdication. He refused to become the "Son of Heaven" (in the secular sense) and was content to be a "Tiānmín." His status as "Tiānmín" was manifested by refusing to be bound by any secular ruling system, belonging only to the natural rhythm of the Dao.

Shan Juan (善卷).

Zhuangzi, Rang Wang (Yielding the Throne), records several who refused abdication. Shan Juan said:

"I stand within the universe. In winter, I wear furs; in summer, I wear coarse linen. In spring, I plow and sow; my body is sufficient for labor. In autumn, I harvest and gather; my body is sufficient for rest and food. I work at sunrise and rest at sunset, wandering freely between Heaven and Earth, and my mind is content. Why would I want the world! How sad that you do not know me!" He refused the throne and retreated into the deep mountains, where no one knew his whereabouts.

Shan Juan "stood within the universe," following the rhythm of Heaven and Earth (plowing in spring, harvesting in autumn, working at sunrise, resting at sunset). His lifestyle was that of a "Tiānmín"—completely merged with the operation of the Heavenly Dao. He refused the world and entered the deep mountains, "no one knew his whereabouts"—the world could no longer find him. This is a depiction of "Human Abandonment" (or self-abandonment) and "Heavenly Assistance" (the Dao sustaining him in the mountains).

Chao Fu and Wu Guang (巢父与务光).

Zhuangzi, Rang Wang, records many who refused the throne, such as Chao Fu, who washed his ears upon hearing Xu You did the same, feeling the water had been defiled, and then led his ox upstream. These figures are archetypes of "Tiānmín"—not only unwilling to be the Son of Heaven but unwilling to be associated with any matter concerning the Son of Heaven.

Section 4: The Spiritual Temperament of "Tiānmín"

Synthesizing the above analysis, the spiritual temperament of "Tiānmín" can be summarized in the following points:

First, Transcendence of the Secular. Tiānmín are not constrained by worldly fame, profit, or power; they do not judge themselves by secular standards, nor do they hold expectations based on worldly norms.

Second, Conformity to the Heavenly Dao. The lifestyle, way of thinking, and mode of existence of Tiānmín are all merged with the operation of the Heavenly Dao. They do not deliberately "conform to the Heavenly Dao"; it is natural because they have removed all artificial distortions.

Third, Self-Reliance on Nothing. Tiānmín do not depend on any support from secular society—not on the protection of power, the security of wealth, or the propagation of fame. Their sole reliance is the Heavenly Dao itself.

Fourth, Fearlessness. Because they do not rely on the secular, Tiānmín fear none of its threats—they do not fear losing power, wealth, fame, or even life itself.

Zhuangzi, Da Zong Shi, states:

"The True People of antiquity knew not the joy of living, nor the aversion to death. When they emerged, they did not rejoice; when they entered, they did not resist. They departed with a carefree sigh, and arrived with a carefree sigh. They did not forget their origin, nor seek their end. They accepted what came with joy, and forgot it when it returned. This is called not letting the mind damage the Dao, and not using human effort to assist Heaven. This is called the True Person."

"Not letting the mind damage the Dao, and not using human effort to assist Heaven" (Bù Yǐ Xīn Juān Dào, Bù Yǐ Rén Zhù Tiān)—this is the most concise encapsulation of the "Tiānmín" temperament.

Chapter 12: Examination of "What Heaven Assists is Called the Son of Heaven" (Tiān Zhī Suǒ Zhù, Wèi Zhī Tiānzǐ)

Section 1: Distinction of the Meaning of "Tiānzǐ" (Son of Heaven)

The most startling aspect of this sentence, "What Heaven assists is called the Son of Heaven," is that Zhuangzi redefines the term "Son of Heaven."

In pre-Qin political discourse, "Tiānzǐ" usually referred to the supreme ruler of the world—the King of Zhou. As in Shijing, Da Ya, Jia Le:

"Praise the joy of the noble lords, whose virtue shines brightly, benefiting the people and benefiting man, receiving sustenance from Heaven. May they be supported and commanded by Heaven, and may Heaven extend its blessings to them."

The Son of Heaven receives the Mandate from Heaven to rule all people under Heaven. This is the common meaning of "Tiānzǐ."

However, Zhuangzi’s "Tiānzǐ" here does not refer to the secular supreme ruler. "What Heaven assists is called the Son of Heaven"—only those assisted by the Heavenly Dao are called "Tiānzǐ." This "Tiānzǐ" is not a political identity but a spiritual identity; it is not a symbol of secular power but a mark of recognition by the Heavenly Dao.

Section 2: The Profound Significance of Zhuangzi’s Redefinition of "Tiānzǐ"

Why does Zhuangzi redefine "Tiānzǐ"$43

This act carries profound philosophical implications. In pre-Qin political thought, the position of "Tiānzǐ" held supreme sanctity. The Son of Heaven received the Mandate from Heaven to rule the people, and his legitimacy derived from the "Mandate of Heaven" (Tiānmìng).

Shangshu, Tang Shi states:

"The Xia dynasty has committed many crimes; Heaven has commanded their end."

Shijing, Da Ya, Wen Wang, states:

"King Wen is above, shining brightly in Heaven. Though Zhou is an old state, its Mandate is renewed."

The "Mandate of Heaven" was the ultimate source of political legitimacy. Zhuangzi, however, fundamentally questioned this: Are the secular "Sons of Heaven" truly assisted by Heaven$44 Are those whom Heaven assists truly those who sit on thrones$45

Zhuangzi’s answer is clearly negative. In his view, the true "Tiānzǐ" is not someone who gains the throne through force, military might, or hereditary succession, but someone who achieves "Yǔ Tài Dìng," emits "Heavenly Light," and possesses the virtue of "Constancy" (Héng). Even if they hold no secular power, they are the true "Tiānzǐ"—because the Heavenly Dao truly assists them.

This aligns with Laozi Chapter 36:

"The Dao is always nameless. Though small, no one under Heaven can make it a subject. If lords and kings can guard it, the ten thousand things will spontaneously submit. Heaven and Earth will unite and send down sweet dew; the people will not be commanded yet harmonize themselves."

"If lords and kings can guard it"—the word "if" (Ruo) is crucial, implying they might not guard it. If the lords and kings fail to guard the Dao, they are not true "Tiānzǐ"—even if they occupy the seat of the Son of Heaven.

Section 3: The Relationship between "Tiānmín" and "Tiānzǐ"

"What people abandon is called the People of Heaven; what Heaven assists is called the Son of Heaven." What is the relationship between "Tiānmín" and "Tiānzǐ" here$46 Are they two different types of people, or two aspects of the same person$47

Grammatically, "what people abandon" and "what Heaven assists" correspond separately to "Tiānmín" and "Tiānzǐ," suggesting two different definitions: those whom the world bestows upon (or abandons) are called "Tiānmín," and those assisted by the Heavenly Dao are called "Tiānzǐ."

However, in terms of doctrinal meaning, "what people abandon" and "what Heaven assists" refer to the same group of people—those abandoned by the secular world are precisely those assisted by the Heavenly Dao. They are both "Tiānmín" and "Tiānzǐ."

This is the unity of "Tiānmín" and "Tiānzǐ." In the secular political order, "people" (Mín) and "son" (Zǐ, Son of Heaven) are opposed—the people are the ruled, the Tiānzǐ is the ruler. But in Zhuangzi’s order of the Heavenly Dao, "Tiānmín" and "Tiānzǐ" are unified—the purest people of the Heavenly Dao are simultaneously the purest sons of the Heavenly Dao. They rule no one, nor are they ruled by anyone; they are simply embodiments of the Heavenly Dao.

Zhuangzi, Zai You, states:

"Therefore, when a superior person is obliged to govern the world, there is nothing better than non-action. By non-action, he secures the essence of his nature and destiny. Therefore, to cherish one’s self as the world means one can entrust the world to it; to love one’s self as the world means one can rely upon the world."

"Obliged to govern the world" (Bù Dé Yǐ Ér Lín Lì Tiān Xià)—only taking up governance when absolutely necessary. The true "Tiānzǐ" is not one who actively seeks power but one who takes on the burden of the world only when compelled. He prefers to be a "Tiānmín"—freely conforming to the Heavenly Dao. But the Heavenly Dao pushes him into the position of "Tiānzǐ"—this is a manifestation of "Heavenly Assistance."

Section 4: "Tiānzǐ" and Legends of Ancient Sovereigns

In ancient imperial legends, who comes closest to Zhuangzi’s concept of "Tiānzǐ"$48

Fuxi (伏羲氏).

Zhuangzi, Da Zong Shi, states:

"The Dao has form and trustworthiness, non-action and no shape. It can be transmitted but not received, obtained but not seen. It is from its root and base, existing since before Heaven and Earth. It predates the spirits and deities and generates Heaven and Earth. It was before the Taiji and was not high; it was beneath the Six Extremes and was not deep. It was born before Heaven and Earth and was not old; it existed long before ancient times and was not aged. Xi Wei obtained it and grasped the essence of Heaven and Earth. Fuxi obtained it and inherited the mother of Qi."

Fuxi "obtained the Dao" and "inherited the mother of Qi" (Xí Qì Mǔ)—inheriting the root of Heaven and Earth’s vital energy. This "obtaining the Dao" is a manifestation of "Heavenly Assistance." Fuxi did not gain the world through force or schemes, but by merging with the Heavenly Dao (obtaining the Dao) and thus naturally becoming the lord of the world. He is the true "Son of Heaven."

The Yellow Emperor (Huang Di).

Zhuangzi, Zai You, recounts:

"The Yellow Emperor reigned as Son of Heaven for nineteen years, and his commands were followed throughout the world. He heard that Guang Cheng Zi was dwelling atop Mount Kongtong, so he went to visit him, saying: 'I have heard that you have grasped the Ultimate Dao. I humbly ask about its essence. I wish to take the essence of Heaven and Earth to supplement the five grains and nourish the people. I also wish to regulate Yin and Yang to help the masses flourish. What should I do$49' Guang Cheng Zi said: 'What you wish to ask about is the essence of things; what you wish to regulate is the ruin of things. Since you governed the world, clouds gathered and rained without waiting for accumulation, grass and trees withered before autumn, and the light of the sun and moon became even more dim. Your scheming mind is so restless; how can you discuss the Ultimate Dao!'"

Although the Yellow Emperor was a Son of Heaven, his initial governance still involved artificial manipulation—he wished "to supplement the five grains and nourish the people." Guang Cheng Zi criticized him: You ask about the "essence of things," but you want to manage the "ruin of things." Since you governed the world, rain fell without gathering, plants withered prematurely, and the light of the sun and moon dimmed. Your restless mind—how can you speak of the Ultimate Dao!

This story illustrates that even a great ruler like the Yellow Emperor, if his method of governing deviates from the Heavenly Dao, is not a true "Son of Heaven." The true "Son of Heaven" governs through non-action, allowing Heaven, Earth, and all things to follow their nature.

The Yellow Emperor listened to Guang Cheng Zi’s teaching, practiced for three months, and visited him again. Guang Cheng Zi taught him:

"The essence of the Ultimate Dao is dark and obscure; the extreme of the Ultimate Dao is dim and silent. See nothing, hear nothing, embrace the spirit with stillness, and the form will straighten itself. You must be still and clear; do not exhaust your form, do not shake your essence, and thus you can attain longevity."

This teaching of "embracing the spirit with stillness" and "must be still and clear" is precisely the practice of "Yǔ Tài Dìng." Only through this cultivation did the Yellow Emperor become the true "Son of Heaven."

Section 5: The Revolutionary Significance of the Concept of "Tiānzǐ"

Zhuangzi’s redefinition of "Tiānzǐ" holds revolutionary significance in pre-Qin philosophy.

Before Zhuangzi, "Tiānzǐ" was a political concept—the supreme ruler of the world, whose power derived from the Mandate of Heaven. Even after Zhuangzi (though we limit ourselves to the pre-Qin context), "Tiānzǐ" remained primarily a political concept. However, Zhuangzi invested "Tiānzǐ" with a new spiritual meaning—the Tiānzǐ is one assisted by the Heavenly Dao, not necessarily one who sits on the throne. This means legitimacy of secular power does not lie in the form of the Mandate (abdication or heredity), but in the substance of the Heavenly Dao (alignment with the Dao).

This idea aligns with Laozi Chapter 77:

"The Way of Heaven diminishes what is excessive and replenishes what is deficient. The way of man is the opposite: diminishing the deficient to serve the excessive. Who among men can use their surplus to serve the world$50 Only the one who possesses the Dao."

The "way of man" (secular order) is "diminishing the deficient to serve the excess"—exploiting the poor to serve the rich. The "Way of Heaven" is the opposite—"diminishing what is excessive and replenishing what is deficient." The only one who can offer his "surplus to serve the world" is "the one who possesses the Dao." This "possessor of the Dao" is precisely Zhuangzi’s "Tiānzǐ"—not the one sitting on the throne exploiting the masses, but the one who serves the world with the spirit of the Heavenly Dao.

Laozi Chapter 79 further states:

"The Dao of Heaven is impartial and always benefits the good."

The Heavenly Dao is impartial; it always helps the good. This "good" (Shàn) does not necessarily mean morally good in the secular sense (accumulating good deeds), but one who aligns with the Heavenly Dao. The Heavenly Dao assists those who align with it; this is the profound meaning of "What Heaven assists is called the Son of Heaven."