An Inquiry into the Core of Xunzi's 'On Rites': The Origin of Rites, Textual-Structural Logic, and the Way of Elevation and Reduction

Chapter 1 Introduction: Why Inquire into Rites, Why Discuss Rites

Section 1 The Great Question of Rites

Rites (Li, 礼) stand as the linchpin of pre-Qin scholarship. Since the time of the Three Dynasties onward, any discourse on governance, moral education, the way of Heaven, or the nature of life has been inseparable from the concept of Li. The term Li permeates the discussions of the Hundred Schools of Thought in the pre-Qin era, encompassing the constants of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth, and the conduct of humanity—it is ubiquitous and all-encompassing. But precisely where do Rites originate$1 What makes Li to be Li$2 What is the internal structure of Li$3 And how should we understand its highest realization$4 These great questions have been subjects of prolonged debate for millennia, and the one who offered a systematic answer from the fundamental perspective is Master Xunzi in his Discourse on Rites (Li Lun).

Master Xunzi lived in an era not too distant from antiquity, yet one undergoing rapid transformation. The Rites of the Three Dynasties had collapsed, music had fallen into decay; states waged war, feudal lords usurped authority, high officials seized power, and subsidiary ministers controlled the destiny of the state—the order of the world was utterly fragmented. Master Kong once sighed, "The gu (觚, a ritual wine vessel) is not a gu! Oh, the gu! Oh, the gu!" (Analects, Yong Ye). This lament was not merely about the change in a single vessel; it was a lament over the disorder of names and realities, the loss of both cultural refinement (wen) and inherent substance (zhi) in the world. By the time of Master Xunzi, this disorder had become even more severe. At the end of the Warring States period, the Seven Hegemons contended, the doctrines of utilitarianism prevailed, and the art of diplomacy flourished. People’s hearts increasingly inclined toward profit and strayed from righteousness, almost eroding the very foundation of the ritual order. It was against this historical backdrop that Master Xunzi, with his profound thought and grand vision, composed the Discourse on Rites, a timeless masterpiece, attempting to fundamentally answer the ultimate question: "Where do Rites originate$5"

Why is "Where do Rites originate$6" considered an ultimate question$7 Because to inquire into the origin is to inquire into the essence; to inquire into the essence is to inquire into the reason for existence and the mode of existence. Any academic inquiry that can trace back to the "question of origin" has touched the core of the matter. Master Xunzi opens his discourse by asking, "Where do Rites originate$8" The astonishing power of this question lies in his refusal to be satisfied with merely describing what Rites are or detailing their specific observances; he seeks to explain the intrinsic logic of why Li is Li from the foundation of human nature, the foundation of society, and the foundation of Heaven and Earth.

This great question involves extensive considerations. It pertains to the theory of human nature—where do human desires come from$9 Are they good or evil$10 Should they be nurtured or restrained$11 It concerns social theory—why does humanity require order$12 How is order possible$13 How is it maintained$14 It involves political theory—why did the Former Kings establish Rites$15 What is the purpose of establishing Rites$16 What are the standards for establishing Rites$17 It touches upon philosophical theory—how are culture (wen) and substance (zhi), emotion (qing) and principle (li), origin (ben) and function (yong), flourishing (long) and reduction (sha) balanced and unified$18 It even involves cosmology—what is the relationship between human desires and the material products of Heaven and Earth$19 Does the proposition that "the two support each other and grow" contain some cosmological insight$20

All these matters require deep investigation and careful analysis. The present article is dedicated to providing as deep and comprehensive an interpretation and inquiry as possible into these few, crucial passages at the beginning of Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites.

Section 2 Overview of the Text and Core Teachings

The text studied in this article is selected from the core passages of Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, comprising four sections. We shall first transcribe the text here and then outline the core meaning of each passage sequentially.

Passage 1:

Where do Rites originate$21 They originate from this: humans are born with desires. When desires are present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek. When seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided. Contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution. The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness (Yi, 义) to differentiate among them, thereby nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands. This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires. When the two support each other and grow, this is the origin of Rites.

This passage serves as the general outline of the Discourse on Rites, explaining the origin of Rites. Its core logic can be summarized as a causal chain: Desire $\rightarrow$ Seeking $\rightarrow$ Lack of Measure and Boundary $\rightarrow$ Contention $\rightarrow$ Chaos $\rightarrow$ Destitution $\rightarrow$ Former Kings Establish Rites $\rightarrow$ Nurture Desire and Satisfy Seeking $\rightarrow$ Mutual Support and Growth between Desire and Material Things $\rightarrow$ This is the Origin of Rites. This is a logical deduction from the "natural state" of human nature to the "institutional state" of society, and a process of transformation from "chaos" to "order."

Passage 2:

Honoring the root (ben) is called culture (wen); embracing utility (yong) is called principle (li). When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity (Da Yi, 大一)—this is called Great Flourishing (Da Long, 大隆).

This passage is extremely concise, discussing the internal structure of Rites. "Root" (ben) and "Utility" (yong), "Culture" (wen) and "Principle" (li), constitute the two major dimensions of Rites. "Honoring the root" is to respect the fundamental basis, while "embracing utility" is to be close to practical application. When the two unite, they form culture and return to the "Great Unity"—this is "Great Flourishing" (Da Long)—the highest state of flourishing within Rites.

Passage 3:

All Rites begin with simplicity (tuo or zhuo), are completed in culture (wen), and end in joyful calibration (yue jiao). Thus, in their utmost perfection, both emotion (qing) and culture (wen) are fully realized; in the next degree, emotion and culture alternately prevail; the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity.

This passage discusses the developmental process and stratification of Rites. Simplicity (zhuo, implying unrefined substance) marks the beginning, culture (wen) marks the completion of refinement, and joyful calibration (yue jiao) marks the harmonious end. The relationship between emotion (qing) and culture (wen) determines the quality of the Rites. The highest state is when "emotion and culture are both fully realized" (qing wen ju jin); the next is when "emotion and culture alternately prevail" (qing wen dai sheng); the lowest is when emotion is "reverted to" (fu qing) to return to the Great Unity.

Passage 4:

Rites use material things (cai wu) as their utility (yong), use nobility and baseness (gui jian) as their culture (wen), use abundance and scarcity (duo shao) as their differentiation (yi), and use flourishing (long) and reduction (sha) as their key principle (yao). When culture and principle are elaborate, and emotion and utility are restrained, this is the flourishing (long) of Rites. When culture and principle are sparse, and emotion and utility are abundant, this is the reduction (sha) of Rites. When culture, principle, emotion, and utility mutually serve as interior and exterior, manifestation and obscurity, operating concurrently and intermingled, this is the middle course (zhong liu) of Rites. Therefore, the superior man achieves the utmost flourishing above, exhausts the utmost reduction below, and resides in the middle. His steps, gallops, and swift flights do not go beyond these. This is the altar-space and court of the superior man. If one possesses this, he is a gentleman (shi junzi); if outside this, he is a commoner (min); if he resides perfectly in the middle, moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly, he is a Sage (sheng ren). Thus, that which is deep (hou) is the accumulation of Rites; that which is great (da) is the expanse of Rites; that which is high (gao) is the flourishing (long) of Rites; that which is bright (ming) is the perfection (jin) of Rites. The Book of Odes says: "Rites and ceremonies perfectly measure, laughter and speech perfectly accord." This is what is meant.

This passage is the summary and sublimation of the entire essay. It first explains the four elements of Rites—material things (utility), nobility/baseness (culture), abundance/scarcity (differentiation), and flourishing/reduction (key principle); it then discusses the three tiers of Rites—flourishing (long), reduction (sha), and the middle course (zhong liu); finally, it distinguishes between the superior man and the Sage, and outlines the four virtues of Rites—depth (hou), greatness (da), height (gao), and brightness (ming). It concludes by citing the Book of Odes as evidence, unifying the entire body of reasoning into a complete system.

Section 3 Perspectives and Methods of Inquiry

The present study approaches the text primarily from the following three perspectives:

First, the perspective of pre-Qin Confucianism. Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites represents the culmination of Confucian ritual scholarship in the pre-Qin period. To deeply understand its teachings, one must examine it within the entire tradition of pre-Qin Confucian scholarship. Master Kong’s discussions on Rites, found in various passages of the Analects, often speak from a practical dimension; Master Mengzi’s discussions, found in the seven chapters of the Mencius, often speak from the dimension of mind and nature; whereas Master Xunzi’s discussion systematizes Rites from both institutional and philosophical dimensions. Between the three, there is transmission, development, and profound theoretical tension. This article will extensively cite original texts from the Analects, the Mencius, and other chapters of the Xunzi to present this lineage of transmission and development.

Furthermore, various chapters of the Book of Rites (Li Ji), such as Li Yun (The Evolution of Rites), Yue Ji (The Discourse on Music), Zhong Yong (The Doctrine of the Mean), Da Xue (The Great Learning), Fang Ji, Biao Ji, and Zi Yi, although compiled later, contain core content largely derived from pre-Qin Confucians, frequently echoing Master Xunzi’s views. This article will frequently quote from the Li Ji for reference.

In addition, the Zuo Zhuan and the Guo Yu (Discourses of the States) record numerous examples of ritual practice and ritualistic discussions from the Spring and Autumn period, such as Master Zichan’s discourse on Rites, Uncle Xiang’s discourse, and Yan Ying’s discourse, all invaluable materials for understanding pre-Qin ritual thought. The I Ching (Zhou Yi), particularly its Xu Gua (Sequence Hexagrams), Tuan Zhuan (Commentary on the Images), and Xiang Zhuan (Commentary on the Images), also contains rich concepts of order and ritualistic philosophy. The Book of Songs (Shi Jing) and the Book of Documents (Shang Shu), as the most ancient documents, reflect primordial concepts of rites and are fundamental references for understanding the origins of Li. All will be cited where relevant.

Second, the perspective of pre-Qin Daoism. Daoism’s stance toward Rites is outwardly critical and negatory. Master Laozi states: "When the Dao is lost, virtue (De) follows. When virtue is lost, benevolence (Ren) follows. When benevolence is lost, righteousness (Yi) follows. When righteousness is lost, Rites (Li) follow. Rites are the thin veneer of loyalty and trust, and the beginning of chaos." (Laozi, Chapter 38). Master Zhuangzi is even more biting, satirizing and deconstructing worldly Rites. However, Daoist critique precisely reveals a deep problem within Rites—the formalism of Rites, the alienation of Rites, and the tension between Rites and Nature. Viewing Xunzi’s theory of Rites from a Daoist perspective allows for a deeper understanding of the relationship between "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen), "root" (ben) and "utility" (yong), and the ultimate state of the "Great Unity" (Da Yi).

On a deeper level, the "Nature" (Ziran) sought by Daoism and the "Order" sought by Confucianism are not strictly antithetical. Laozi’s "The Dao follows what is natural" (Dao fa Ziran) and Zhuangzi’s "Heaven and Earth possess great beauty but do not speak; the four seasons have clear laws but do not debate; the myriad things possess perfected principles but do not preach" (Zhuangzi, Zhi Bei You) actually imply a higher level of ordering principle—the order of Nature itself. Does Master Xunzi’s "the two support each other and grow," and "return to the Great Unity," also imply some correspondence with this natural order$22 This question deserves deep investigation.

Third, the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore. The origin of Rites is not only a philosophical question but also a historical and anthropological one. Pre-Qin texts preserve numerous records concerning ancient sacrifices, shamanism, and rituals. Li Ji: Li Yun states: "The beginning of Rites originated in food and drink. When roasting millet and chopping up pigs, using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands, beating drums with grass bundles—even this seemed sufficient to convey their reverence to the spirits of Heaven and Earth." This view traces the origin of Rites back to the most primitive food sacrifices. The deities, totem worship, and rituals recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shan Hai Jing), the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth by Emperors Yao and Shun recorded in the Book of Documents, and the sacrificial hymns in the Book of Songs are all important clues for understanding the primordial form of Rites.

From the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore, the origin of Rites might be far more ancient and mysterious than Master Xunzi describes. The initial form of Rites may not have been rational institutional design, but reverence and piety felt by humans facing the spirits of Heaven and Earth. This reverence and piety constitute the most primordial expression of the "emotion" (qing) of Rites. Does Master Xunzi’s "begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo)—this simplicity (zhuo) at the beginning—hint at the ancient, primordial form of Rites$23 This also warrants deep inquiry.

In terms of research methodology, this article will be based on close textual reading, centered on the elucidation of principles, and utilizing inter-textual verification as the means. "Close textual reading" involves analyzing Master Xunzi’s original text sentence by sentence, missing no layer of deep meaning in any word. "Elucidation of principles" means, building upon close reading, revealing the inherent philosophical logic and ideological system. "Inter-textual verification" involves quoting original texts from other pre-Qin classics to correspond with and verify Master Xunzi’s claims, thereby presenting the overall landscape of pre-Qin ritual scholarship.

This article strives to be rigorous in its textual scholarship, profound in its elucidation of principles, yet accessible in its presentation. All cited classics are original pre-Qin texts, without reference to materials from the Han dynasty or later. Respectful terms will be used consistently for ancient figures to show deference.

Section 4 Development of the Problematic Consciousness

Before delving into the main text, it is necessary to organize and expand upon the core problematic consciousness of this article. Reading these four passages from Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, we can pose at least the following manifold questions:

Regarding the Origin of Rites:

Why does Master Xunzi make "humans are born with desires" the logical starting point for Rites$24 What exactly is the concept of "desire" (yu) within Master Xunzi’s system$25 Is it purely negative, neutral, or even possess some legitimacy$26 "When desires are present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek"—what is the relationship between "desire" (yu) and "seeking" (qiu)$27 What does "unsatisfied" (bu de) imply$28 Material scarcity, or the inherent nature of desire itself$29 "When seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided"—what do the four characters "measure, quantity, division, boundary" (du liang fen jie) mean$30 Do these four terms each refer to something distinct$31 "The Former Kings detested this chaos"—who are the "Former Kings"$32 Are they specific historical figures, or an idealized concept$33 Does the "detestation" (e) of chaos imply mere dislike or serious concern$34 "Established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them"—how should "establish" (zhi) be understood$35 Is it creation or discovery$36 Were Rites created out of thin air by the Former Kings, or did they discover a natural law and institutionalize it$37 "Thereby nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands"—why "nurture" desire rather than "extinguish" it$38 How does this fundamentally differ from the Buddhist path of extinguishing desire or the Daoist path of reducing desire$39 "This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires"—what do "exhaust" (qiong) and "subjugated" (qu) mean$40 "When the two support each other and grow"—does "support each other" (xiang chi) imply confrontation or mutual sustenance$41 Does "and grow" (er zhang) mean they increase together$42

Regarding Culture (Wen) and Principle (Li):

"Honoring the root is called culture (wen)"—What is the "root" (ben)$43 Why is "honoring the root" called "culture" (wen)$44 Conventionally, the "root" should relate to "substance" (zhi), and "culture" to "embellishment." Why is honoring the root instead called "culture" (wen)$45 Does the term "culture" (wen) here have a special meaning$46 "Embracing utility is called principle (li)"—What is "utility" (yong)$47 Why is "embracing utility" called "principle" (li)$48 Does "principle" here mean order or texture, or does it mean reason or law$49 "When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity (Da Yi)"—What state is the "Great Unity"$50 Is it related to the "Dao" spoken of by Daoists$51 "This is called Great Flourishing (Da Long)"—Is "Great Flourishing" the highest state of Rites$52 What is its relationship to the "flourishing" (long) mentioned later$53

Regarding the Process and Levels of Rites:

"Begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo)—What is the meaning of zhuo (梲)$54 Commentators have long debated this. Does it mean "to shed" (simplicity, unadorned), or does it refer to something else$55 "Completed in culture" (cheng hu wen)—Since the completion of Rites lies in "culture" (wen), is this wen the same as the wen in the previous passage$56 "Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao)—What is "joyful calibration"$57 Does "joy" (yue) mean delight, and "calibration" (jiao) mean verification or comparison$58 Or does it have another meaning$59 "Emotion and culture are both fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—Does "fully realized" (jin) mean exhausted or perfected$60 "Emotion and culture alternately prevail" (qing wen dai sheng)—Does "alternately prevail" mean one wins out over the other, or that they substitute each other$61 "Reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity" (fu qing yi gui Da Yi)—Why does the "lowest degree" also "return to the Great Unity"$62 Is the Great Unity not the highest state$63 Why can the lowest degree also return to the Great Unity$64 Does this imply a dialectic of "the extreme of misfortune leads to fortune"$65

Regarding Flourishing, Reduction, and the Sages’ Attainment:

"Rites use material things as their utility, use nobility and baseness as their culture, use abundance and scarcity as their differentiation, and use flourishing and reduction as their key principle"—What is the relationship among these four elements$66 Are they parallel or successive$67 "When culture and principle are elaborate, and emotion and utility are restrained, this is the flourishing (long) of Rites." Why is it the flourishing (long) of Rites when culture and principle are elaborate but emotion and utility are restrained$68 Does this imply that the more flourishing the Rites, the more concise their emotional content$69 Does this contradict the ideal of "emotion and culture are both fully realized"$70 "The superior man achieves the utmost flourishing above, exhausts the utmost reduction below, and resides in the middle"—Why must the superior man navigate between flourishing, reduction, and the middle$71 "His steps, gallops, and swift flights do not go beyond these"—What do the phrases symbolizing walking, galloping, and flying swiftly symbolize$72 "This is the altar-space and court of the superior man"—Is "altar-space and court" a literal reference or a metaphor$73 "If he resides perfectly in the middle, moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly, he is a Sage"—What do "moving deftly" (fang huang) and "grasping the order implicitly" (qu de qi ci xu) mean$74 What is the distinction between the Sage and the superior man$75 "That which is deep is the accumulation of Rites; that which is great is the expanse of Rites; that which is high is the flourishing of Rites; that which is bright is the perfection of Rites"—Do the four terms depth, greatness, height, and brightness constitute the four dimensions of Rites$76 What is their relationship to the flourishing/reduction system discussed earlier$77

All such questions are what this article seeks to explore deeply. The following sections will proceed according to the order of the text, interpreting passage by passage and sentence by sentence, while continuously introducing original texts from other pre-Qin classics for correspondence and verification.