Chapter One: Introduction -- Why Inquire into Ritual, Why Discourse on Ritual

Section 1: Ritual as the Great Question

Ritual (li) is the pivot of pre-Qin scholarship. From the Three Dynasties onward, no discourse on governance, human relations, the Way of Heaven, or the nature of life has been able to stand apart from ritual. The single word li runs through the treatises of all the Hundred Schools of pre-Qin thought like the warp of heaven, the weft of earth, and the conduct of humankind -- omnipresent and all-encompassing. Yet where, ultimately, does ritual originate$1 What makes ritual ritual$2 What is its inner structure$3 And how should its highest realm be understood$4 These great questions have been debated for millennia, and the thinker who first answered them systematically and from first principles was Master Xun in his Discourse on Ritual (Lilun).

Master Xun lived in an age not far removed from antiquity, yet one in which the world was already in violent flux. The ritual and music of the Three Dynasties had crumbled; the feudal states warred, the lords overstepped their station, the great officers usurped power, and retainers seized the reins of state -- the order of All-under-Heaven had dissolved. The Master once sighed: "The gu goblet is no longer a gu -- what a gu! What a gu!" (Lunyu 6, "Yong Ye"). That lament was not merely about one vessel's alteration; it was a lament that names and realities alike had fallen into chaos and that both pattern and substance had been lost. By Master Xun's day the disorder was yet more severe. At the close of the Warring States period, the Seven Powers vied for hegemony, doctrines of profit ran rampant, the arts of the Diplomats flourished, and men's hearts daily inclined toward gain and away from rightness -- the very foundations of the ritual order had all but vanished. It was against precisely this backdrop that Master Xun, with his profound thought and sweeping vision, composed the Discourse on Ritual, that singular masterpiece of the ages, seeking to answer from first principles the ultimate question: "Whence does ritual arise$5"

Why call "Whence does ritual arise$6" an ultimate question$7 Because to inquire into origin is to inquire into essence; and to inquire into essence is to inquire into the reason and manner of a thing's existence. In any field of learning, when inquiry can be traced back to the question of "origin," one has touched the core of the matter. That Master Xun opens with "Whence does ritual arise$8" is earth-shattering in its implications, for he refuses to content himself with merely describing what ritual is or cataloguing its specific ceremonies. Instead, he undertakes to explain the inner logic of why ritual is ritual, starting from the very roots of human nature, of society, and of heaven and earth.

This great question ramifies in many directions. It bears upon the theory of human nature: whence come human desires$9 Are they good or evil$10 Should they be nourished or suppressed$11 It bears upon social theory: why does a human community require order$12 How is order possible$13 How is it sustained$14 It bears upon political theory: why did the former kings institute ritual$15 What was their purpose$16 What was their standard$17 It bears upon philosophy: how are pattern (wen) and substance, feeling (qing) and principle (li), root (ben) and function (yong), abundance (long) and reduction (sha) to be balanced and unified$18 It even bears upon cosmology: what, exactly, is the relationship between human desire and the material bounty of heaven and earth$19 Does the proposition that "the two sustain each other and grow together" conceal a cosmological insight$20

All these matters demand close investigation and careful discrimination. The present article is written precisely to offer as deep and as comprehensive a reading as possible of those crucially important opening passages of Master Xun's Discourse on Ritual.

Section 2: Overview of the Text and Its Core Principles

The text under study in this article comprises four core paragraphs selected from Master Xun's Discourse on Ritual. Let us first set down the text itself, then outline the central meaning of each passage in turn.

First Paragraph:

Whence does ritual arise$21 I say: human beings are born with desires. When desires are not satisfied, one cannot but seek to fulfill them. When seeking has no measure, no limit, no allotment, and no boundary, one cannot but contend. Contention leads to disorder; disorder leads to impoverishment. The former kings abhorred this disorder, and so they instituted ritual and rightness to apportion and differentiate -- thereby nourishing human desires and supplying human needs. They ensured that desires would never exhaust material resources and that material resources would never be overwhelmed by desires. The two sustain each other and grow together: this is the origin of ritual.

This paragraph is the master outline of the Discourse on Ritual, setting forth the origin of ritual. Its core logic can be summarized as a causal chain: desire --> seeking --> absence of measure and boundary --> contention --> disorder --> impoverishment --> the former kings institute ritual --> desires nourished, needs supplied --> desire and material resources sustain each other and grow. It is a logical deduction from the "state of nature" in human nature to the "state of institutions" in society, and a process of transformation from chaos to order.

Second Paragraph:

To honor the root is called pattern (wen); to cleave to function is called order (li). When the two unite to form pattern and return to the Great Unity, this is called the Grand Abundance.

This passage is extraordinarily concise, setting forth the inner structure of ritual. "Root" (ben) and "function" (yong), "pattern" (wen) and "order" (li) constitute the two great dimensions of ritual. "Honoring the root" means revering what is fundamental; "cleaving to function" means adhering closely to practical efficacy. When the two unite and return to the "Great Unity" (da yi), this is the "Grand Abundance" (da long) -- the highest, most flourishing state of ritual.

Third Paragraph:

In all ritual, it begins in plainness (zhuo), is accomplished in pattern (wen), and culminates in harmonious accord (yue jiao). Thus at its most complete, both feeling and pattern are brought to their fullest; at the next level, feeling and pattern alternately prevail; at the lowest, one returns to feeling and thereby rejoins the Great Unity.

This paragraph discusses the developmental process and the graded levels of ritual. Zhuo is the plain beginning; wen is the patterned accomplishment; yue jiao is the harmonious culmination. The relationship between feeling (qing) and pattern (wen) determines the grade of ritual. The highest state is "both feeling and pattern brought to their fullest" -- feeling and form each reach their apex. The next is "feeling and pattern alternately prevailing" -- each in turn takes the lead. The lowest is "returning to feeling and thereby rejoining the Great Unity" -- a return to the authenticity of feeling itself.

Fourth Paragraph:

Ritual takes material goods as its substance, noble and base ranks as its pattern, quantity as its differentiation, and abundance and reduction as its governing principle. When formal pattern and order are elaborate while feeling and practical function are restrained, this is the abundance of ritual. When formal pattern and order are restrained while feeling and practical function are elaborate, this is the reduction of ritual. When formal pattern and order on the one hand and feeling and practical function on the other serve alternately as inner and outer, as light and shadow, running in parallel and interweaving, this is the middle course of ritual. Therefore, the noble person (junzi) reaches upward to the height of abundance, extends downward to the utmost of reduction, and in between occupies the middle ground. Whether walking, striding, galloping, or soaring -- none of it goes beyond this. This is the noble person's altar, hall, palace, and court. One who possesses this is a scholar and noble person; one who falls outside it is a common subject. And one who, within this domain, moves with unhurried ease, encompassing all sides, and at every turn achieves the proper sequence -- that one is a sage. Therefore: depth comes from the accumulation of ritual; breadth comes from the reach of ritual; height comes from the abundance of ritual; luminosity comes from the consummation of ritual. The Odes say: "Rites and ceremonies all meet their measure; laughter and speech all hit their mark." This is what is meant.

This paragraph serves as the summation and culmination of the entire passage. It first sets forth the four elements of ritual -- material goods (function), noble and base ranks (pattern), quantity (differentiation), abundance and reduction (governing principle). It then discusses the three grades of ritual -- abundance, reduction, and the middle course. Finally, it distinguishes the noble person from the sage and presents the four virtues of ritual -- depth, breadth, height, and luminosity. At the close, a line from the Book of Odes is cited as confirmation, drawing together all the principles into one complete system.

Section 3: Perspectives and Methods of Inquiry

This study proceeds from three principal vantage points:

First, the perspective of pre-Qin Confucianism. Master Xun's Discourse on Ritual represents the culmination of the pre-Qin Confucian tradition of ritual learning. To understand it in depth, one must set it within the entire tradition and examine it accordingly. The Master's discussions of ritual, found throughout the Lunyu, speak largely from the standpoint of practice. Master Meng's discussions of ritual, found in the seven books of the Mengzi, speak largely from the standpoint of the moral mind and human nature. Master Xun's treatment systematizes ritual from the standpoints of institutional design and philosophical principle. Among these three, there is both transmission and development, as well as deep theoretical tension. This article will extensively cite original passages from the Lunyu, the Mengzi, and other chapters of the Xunzi to trace this lineage of transmission and development.

At the same time, various chapters of the Liji (Record of Rites) -- such as the Liyun (Conveyance of Rites), Yueji (Record of Music), Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean), Daxue (Great Learning), Fangji, Biaoji, and Ziyi -- though edited and compiled by later hands, contain core material largely attributable to pre-Qin Confucians, material that frequently resonates with Master Xun's ideas. This article will also draw extensively upon the Liji for comparison.

Furthermore, the Zuozhuan and the Guoyu preserve a wealth of ritual practice and ritual discussion from the Spring and Autumn period -- Zichan on ritual, Shuxiang on ritual, Yanying on ritual -- all invaluable resources for understanding pre-Qin ritual learning. The Xugua (Sequence of the Hexagrams), Tuanzhuan (Commentary on the Judgments), and Xiangzhuan (Commentary on the Images) of the Yijing (Book of Changes) likewise contain rich conceptions of order and ritual thought. The Shijing (Book of Odes) and the Shangshu (Book of Documents), as the most ancient texts, reflect archaic ritual conceptions that are fundamental to understanding the sources and currents of ritual. All will be cited in what follows.

Second, the perspective of pre-Qin Daoism. On the surface, the Daoist stance toward ritual is one of critique and negation. The Most High (Laozi) says: "When the Way is lost, there is virtue; when virtue is lost, there is benevolence; when benevolence is lost, there is rightness; when rightness is lost, there is ritual. Now ritual is the thinning of loyalty and good faith, and the beginning of disorder" (Laozi, Chapter 38). Master Zhuang goes further with his acerbic pen, satirizing and deconstructing worldly ritual. Yet Daoist critique illuminates precisely the deep-seated problems of ritual -- its formalization, its alienation, the tension between ritual and nature. Viewing Master Xun's theory of ritual through the Daoist lens allows a deeper understanding of his account of the relationship between feeling (qing) and pattern (wen), between root (ben) and function (yong), and of the ultimate state of the "Great Unity."

At a still deeper level, the "naturalness" pursued by the Daoists and the "order" pursued by the Confucians are not diametrically opposed. What the Most High (Laozi) calls "the Way models itself on what is naturally so" (dao fa ziran), and what Master Zhuang calls "Heaven and Earth possess a great beauty yet do not speak of it; the four seasons follow a clear law yet do not debate it; the myriad things have an accomplished pattern yet do not expound it" (Zhuangzi, "Zhibeiyou") -- these actually imply a higher order of order: the order of nature itself. And when Master Xun speaks of "the two sustaining each other and growing together," or of "returning to the Great Unity," is there not an answering echo of natural order$22 The question merits deep pursuit.

Third, the perspective of archaic myth and folk custom. The origin of ritual is not only a philosophical question but also a historical and anthropological one. Pre-Qin texts preserve a wealth of accounts of archaic sacrifice, shamanism, and ceremony. The Liji (Liyun) says: "The beginnings of ritual started with food and drink. They roasted millet and split open a piglet, scooped a hollow in the ground for a wine vessel and drank from cupped hands, fashioned a drumstick of straw and a drum of earth -- and yet with these they could express their reverence to the spirits and gods." This traces the origin of ritual to the most primitive offerings of food and drink. The various spirit-sacrifices and totem-worship recorded in the Shanhaijing (Classic of Mountains and Seas), the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth by the sage-emperors Yao and Shun recorded in the Shangshu, and the ancestral hymns of the Shijing are all vital clues for understanding the primordial form of ritual.

From the vantage of archaic myth and folk custom, the origin of ritual may be far more ancient and more mysterious than what Master Xun describes. The earliest form of ritual may not have been the rational design of institutions, but rather awe and devotion in the face of heaven, earth, spirits, and gods. That awe and devotion is the most primordial expression of ritual's "feeling" (qing). When Master Xun speaks of "beginning in plainness" (zhuo), does this "plainness" -- the plain beginning -- perhaps allude to ritual's archaic primordial form$23 This too merits deep inquiry.

In terms of method, this article takes close reading of the text as its foundation, the elucidation of philosophical principles as its core, and cross-referencing among classical texts as its means. "Close reading" means analyzing Master Xun's original text word by word and phrase by phrase, leaving no deeper meaning unexamined. "Elucidation of principles" means revealing, on the basis of close reading, the inner philosophical logic and system of thought. "Cross-referencing" means citing original texts from other pre-Qin classics that resonate with and corroborate Master Xun's ideas, so as to present the full landscape of pre-Qin ritual learning.

In writing this article, every effort has been made to achieve rigor of scholarship, depth of philosophical insight, and accessibility of expression. All cited texts are pre-Qin originals; no materials from the Han dynasty or later are introduced. All references to the ancients use honorific forms, as a mark of respect.

Section 4: Unfolding the Guiding Questions

Before entering the main text, it is necessary to lay out and develop the guiding questions of this article. A careful reading of Master Xun's four passages in the Discourse on Ritual allows us to raise at least the following questions:

On the origin of ritual:

Why does Master Xun take "human beings are born with desires" as the logical starting point for the origin of ritual$24 What kind of concept is "desire" (yu) in Master Xun's system of thought$25 Is it purely negative, or neutral, or even legitimate$26 "When desires are not satisfied, one cannot but seek" -- what is the relationship between "desire" and "seeking"$27 What does "not satisfied" mean -- material scarcity, or the very nature of desire$28 "When seeking has no measure, no limit, no allotment, and no boundary, one cannot but contend" -- how should the four characters du liang fen jie be parsed$29 What is du (measure)$30 What is liang (limit)$31 What is fen (allotment)$32 What is jie (boundary)$33 Do these four terms each carry a distinct reference$34 "The former kings abhorred this disorder" -- who are the "former kings"$35 Specific historical persons, or an idealized concept$36 Does the word "abhorred" (wu) mean loathing, or anxiety$37 "They instituted ritual and rightness to apportion" -- how is the word "institute" (zhi) to be understood$38 Creation or discovery$39 Did the former kings create ritual from nothing, or did they discover a certain natural law and institutionalize it$40 "Thereby nourishing human desires, supplying human needs" -- why "nourish" desires rather than "extinguish" them$41 How does this differ fundamentally from the Buddhist extinction of desire or the Daoist diminishing of desire$42 "Desires would never exhaust material resources, material resources would never be overwhelmed by desires" -- what do "exhaust" (qiong) and "overwhelmed" (qu) mean$43 "The two sustain each other and grow" -- does "sustain each other" (xiang chi) mean opposition or mutual support$44 Does "grow" mean to grow together$45

On pattern and order:

"To honor the root is called pattern" -- what is the "root"$46 Why is "honoring the root" called "pattern" (wen)$47 By common sense, "root" should relate to "substance" (zhi), and "pattern" to "adornment" -- so why does honoring the root yield "pattern"$48 Does "pattern" carry a special meaning here$49 "To cleave to function is called order" -- what is "function"$50 Why is "cleaving to function" called "order" (li)$51 Does li here mean texture, or rational principle$52 "The two unite to form pattern and return to the Great Unity" -- what state is the "Great Unity"$53 Does it bear some relation to the "Way" (dao) of Daoism$54 "This is called the Grand Abundance" -- is the "Grand Abundance" the highest state of ritual$55 What is its relationship to the "abundance" discussed later$56

On the process and levels of ritual:

"It begins in plainness" -- what does zhuo mean$57 Commentators have long debated this. Is it cognate with "plain, unadorned" (tuo), or does it mean something else$58 "Is accomplished in pattern" -- ritual is accomplished in wen; is this the same wen as in the preceding passage$59 "Culminates in harmonious accord" -- what is yue jiao$60 Is yue "delight" and jiao "examination, comparison," or is there another meaning$61 "Both feeling and pattern brought to their fullest" -- does "fullest" (jin) mean exhaustion or perfection$62 "Feeling and pattern alternately prevail" -- does "alternately prevail" (dai sheng) mean taking turns winning, or replacing each other$63 "Returns to feeling and thereby rejoins the Great Unity" -- why does the lowest level rejoin the "Great Unity"$64 Is the "Great Unity" not the highest state$65 Why can the lowest also attain it$66 Does this hint at some dialectic of reversal at the extreme$67

On abundance, reduction, and the sage's realm:

"Takes material goods as its substance, noble and base ranks as its pattern, quantity as its differentiation, and abundance and reduction as its governing principle" -- what is the relationship among these four$68 Are they parallel or progressively layered$69 "When formal pattern and order are elaborate while feeling and practical function are restrained, this is the abundance of ritual" -- why does elaborate form with restrained feeling constitute ritual's abundance$70 Does this mean that the more abundant ritual becomes, the simpler its emotional content$71 Does this contradict the ideal of "both feeling and pattern brought to their fullest"$72 "The noble person reaches upward to the height of abundance, extends downward to the utmost of reduction, and in between occupies the middle ground" -- why must the noble person move among all three$73 "Whether walking, striding, galloping, or soaring -- none of it goes beyond this" -- within this sentence we find walking, galloping, and flight; what do they symbolize$74 "This is the noble person's altar, hall, palace, and court" -- literal or figurative$75 "Moves with unhurried ease, encompassing all sides, and at every turn achieves the proper sequence -- that one is a sage" -- what does "unhurried ease" (fang huang) mean$76 What does "encompassing" (zhou xie) mean$77 What does "at every turn achieves the proper sequence" (qu de qi ci xu) mean$78 Where, exactly, does the sage differ from the noble person$79 "Depth comes from the accumulation of ritual; breadth comes from the reach of ritual; height comes from the abundance of ritual; luminosity comes from the consummation of ritual" -- do depth, breadth, height, and luminosity constitute four dimensions of ritual$80 How do they relate to the system of abundance and reduction discussed above$81

All these questions are what the present article sets out to investigate in depth. In what follows, we shall proceed passage by passage and phrase by phrase, continually bringing in original texts from the pre-Qin classics for resonance and corroboration.