An Inquiry into the Core of Xunzi's 'On Rites': The Origin of Rites, Textual-Structural Logic, and the Way of Elevation and Reduction

Section 3 Perspectives and Methods of Inquiry

The present study approaches the text primarily from the following three perspectives:

First, the perspective of pre-Qin Confucianism. Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites represents the culmination of Confucian ritual scholarship in the pre-Qin period. To deeply understand its teachings, one must examine it within the entire tradition of pre-Qin Confucian scholarship. Master Kong’s discussions on Rites, found in various passages of the Analects, often speak from a practical dimension; Master Mengzi’s discussions, found in the seven chapters of the Mencius, often speak from the dimension of mind and nature; whereas Master Xunzi’s discussion systematizes Rites from both institutional and philosophical dimensions. Between the three, there is transmission, development, and profound theoretical tension. This article will extensively cite original texts from the Analects, the Mencius, and other chapters of the Xunzi to present this lineage of transmission and development.

Furthermore, various chapters of the Book of Rites (Li Ji), such as Li Yun (The Evolution of Rites), Yue Ji (The Discourse on Music), Zhong Yong (The Doctrine of the Mean), Da Xue (The Great Learning), Fang Ji, Biao Ji, and Zi Yi, although compiled later, contain core content largely derived from pre-Qin Confucians, frequently echoing Master Xunzi’s views. This article will frequently quote from the Li Ji for reference.

In addition, the Zuo Zhuan and the Guo Yu (Discourses of the States) record numerous examples of ritual practice and ritualistic discussions from the Spring and Autumn period, such as Master Zichan’s discourse on Rites, Uncle Xiang’s discourse, and Yan Ying’s discourse, all invaluable materials for understanding pre-Qin ritual thought. The I Ching (Zhou Yi), particularly its Xu Gua (Sequence Hexagrams), Tuan Zhuan (Commentary on the Images), and Xiang Zhuan (Commentary on the Images), also contains rich concepts of order and ritualistic philosophy. The Book of Songs (Shi Jing) and the Book of Documents (Shang Shu), as the most ancient documents, reflect primordial concepts of rites and are fundamental references for understanding the origins of Li. All will be cited where relevant.

Second, the perspective of pre-Qin Daoism. Daoism’s stance toward Rites is outwardly critical and negatory. Master Laozi states: "When the Dao is lost, virtue (De) follows. When virtue is lost, benevolence (Ren) follows. When benevolence is lost, righteousness (Yi) follows. When righteousness is lost, Rites (Li) follow. Rites are the thin veneer of loyalty and trust, and the beginning of chaos." (Laozi, Chapter 38). Master Zhuangzi is even more biting, satirizing and deconstructing worldly Rites. However, Daoist critique precisely reveals a deep problem within Rites—the formalism of Rites, the alienation of Rites, and the tension between Rites and Nature. Viewing Xunzi’s theory of Rites from a Daoist perspective allows for a deeper understanding of the relationship between "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen), "root" (ben) and "utility" (yong), and the ultimate state of the "Great Unity" (Da Yi).

On a deeper level, the "Nature" (Ziran) sought by Daoism and the "Order" sought by Confucianism are not strictly antithetical. Laozi’s "The Dao follows what is natural" (Dao fa Ziran) and Zhuangzi’s "Heaven and Earth possess great beauty but do not speak; the four seasons have clear laws but do not debate; the myriad things possess perfected principles but do not preach" (Zhuangzi, Zhi Bei You) actually imply a higher level of ordering principle—the order of Nature itself. Does Master Xunzi’s "the two support each other and grow," and "return to the Great Unity," also imply some correspondence with this natural order$22 This question deserves deep investigation.

Third, the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore. The origin of Rites is not only a philosophical question but also a historical and anthropological one. Pre-Qin texts preserve numerous records concerning ancient sacrifices, shamanism, and rituals. Li Ji: Li Yun states: "The beginning of Rites originated in food and drink. When roasting millet and chopping up pigs, using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands, beating drums with grass bundles—even this seemed sufficient to convey their reverence to the spirits of Heaven and Earth." This view traces the origin of Rites back to the most primitive food sacrifices. The deities, totem worship, and rituals recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shan Hai Jing), the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth by Emperors Yao and Shun recorded in the Book of Documents, and the sacrificial hymns in the Book of Songs are all important clues for understanding the primordial form of Rites.

From the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore, the origin of Rites might be far more ancient and mysterious than Master Xunzi describes. The initial form of Rites may not have been rational institutional design, but reverence and piety felt by humans facing the spirits of Heaven and Earth. This reverence and piety constitute the most primordial expression of the "emotion" (qing) of Rites. Does Master Xunzi’s "begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo)—this simplicity (zhuo) at the beginning—hint at the ancient, primordial form of Rites$23 This also warrants deep inquiry.

In terms of research methodology, this article will be based on close textual reading, centered on the elucidation of principles, and utilizing inter-textual verification as the means. "Close textual reading" involves analyzing Master Xunzi’s original text sentence by sentence, missing no layer of deep meaning in any word. "Elucidation of principles" means, building upon close reading, revealing the inherent philosophical logic and ideological system. "Inter-textual verification" involves quoting original texts from other pre-Qin classics to correspond with and verify Master Xunzi’s claims, thereby presenting the overall landscape of pre-Qin ritual scholarship.

This article strives to be rigorous in its textual scholarship, profound in its elucidation of principles, yet accessible in its presentation. All cited classics are original pre-Qin texts, without reference to materials from the Han dynasty or later. Respectful terms will be used consistently for ancient figures to show deference.