An Inquiry into the Core of Xunzi's 'On Rites': The Origin of Rites, Textual-Structural Logic, and the Way of Elevation and Reduction

Chapter 2 Where Do Rites Originate$78 Human Desire, Contention, and the Establishments of the Former Kings

Section 1 "Humans are born with desires": Desire as the Logical Starting Point for Rites

Master Xunzi’s discourse on the origin of Rites begins with the opening sentence: "Where do Rites originate$79 They originate from this: humans are born with desires."

This single sentence, seemingly plain, is in fact earth-shattering. It places the logical starting point of Rites upon "human desire." This implies that, in Master Xunzi’s view, Rites are not divine mandates descended from Heaven, nor abstract principles conceived from thin air by the Sages. Rather, they originate from the most basic, primordial impulse of human life—desire (yu).

What is meant by "humans are born with desires"$80 The phrase "born with" (sheng er you) is extremely crucial. "Born" (sheng) means coeval with birth. "With" (you) means naturally endowed. Combined, "humans are born with desires" means: Desire is human nature, the most fundamental fact of being human. As soon as a person is born, they possess the desire for food, warmth, and security; as they mature, desires for sensory pleasure, fame, and communal living emerge. These desires are not learned later or instilled by someone; they appear simultaneously with life itself.

This position is entirely consistent with Master Xunzi’s arguments in the chapter Xing’e (Human Nature is Evil). Xing’e states:

"The nature of man is evil; his goodness is artificial (wei). The nature of man is such that, being born, he is inclined to profit. If he follows this inclination, contention and rapacity will arise, and courtesy and deference will disappear. Being born, he has feelings of envy and hate. If he follows this, cruelty and violence will arise, and loyalty and trust will disappear. Being born, he has the desires of the ear and eye, loving beautiful sounds and sights. If he follows this, licentiousness and disorder will arise, and rites, righteousness, culture, and principle will disappear."

This passage clearly indicates that humans are born with a tendency toward profit, envy, and hatred, and with desires of the ear and eye for sensory pleasure. These are the characteristics of human nature in its "natural state." The term "evil nature" (xing e) does not mean humans are inherently wicked, but rather that if one allows human natural inclinations to proceed unchecked, the inevitable result is contention, cruelty, and disorder—that is, "evil" consequences.

However, in the Discourse on Rites, Master Xunzi’s tone presents a subtle difference. He does not say "human nature is evil," but rather "humans are born with desires." The word "desire" (yu) itself does not carry a clear good or evil judgment. It is merely a statement of fact: humans have desires. This factual description is neutral. Desire itself is neither good nor evil; it is simply a fundamental dimension of human life.

This point is highly significant. If desire itself were evil, the task of Rites would be "to extinguish desire"—to completely eliminate it. But Master Xunzi clearly does not believe this. He later states clearly, "nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands" (yang ren zhi yu, gei ren zhi qiu)—the task of Rites is not to extinguish desire, but to nurture it and satisfy its demands. This implies that desire possesses legitimacy within Xunzi’s theory of Rites. Desire must be satisfied, but only within certain "measures and boundaries."

This stance has deep roots within the broader tradition of pre-Qin Confucianism. Although Master Kong rarely discussed desire directly, he fully affirmed the legitimacy of basic human needs. In the Analects, Li Ren chapter, it is stated:

"Wealth and status are what men desire. If they cannot be obtained in the proper way (Dao), one should not hold to them. Poverty and lowliness are what men dislike. If they cannot be avoided in the proper way, one should not avoid them."

Master Kong explicitly acknowledges here that the desire for wealth and status is what people want, and the dislike for poverty and lowliness is what people feel. He does not claim that the desire for wealth is inherently wrong; he merely insists that acquiring wealth must be "according to the Way" (yi qi Dao)—that is, through legitimate means. This is entirely consistent with Master Xunzi’s idea of "nurturing human desires"—the goal is not to deny desire itself, but to establish legitimate channels and limits for its satisfaction.

Furthermore, the Analects, Yan Yuan chapter, records a profound dialogue:

Zigong asked about governance. The Master said, "Sufficient food, sufficient military defense, and the people’s trust in them." Zigong asked, "If you must omit one of these three, which should be omitted first$81" The Master said, "Omit the military." Zigong asked, "If you must omit one of the remaining two, which should be omitted first$82" The Master said, "Omit the food. Since antiquity, all have faced death, but the people cannot stand without trust."

In this dialogue, Master Kong lists "sufficient food" as one of the three major necessities of governance, indicating his full recognition of the legitimacy of basic human needs (the most fundamental form of desire). Only when "absolutely unavoidable" should food be omitted, while preserving "trust"—the foundation of social order.

Let us also look at Mencius. Although Mencius advocates for the "goodness of human nature" (xing shan), he also acknowledges that humans have basic desires and that these desires have legitimacy. In Mencius, Liang Hui Wang I, it is said:

"If the King loves sensuality, and the people share that love with him, what harm is there to the King$83"

And further:

"If the King loves wealth, and the people share that love with him, what harm is there to the King$84"

Mencius explicitly states that loving sensuality or loving wealth (material possessions) is acceptable, provided one "shares it with the people" (yu bai xing tong zhi)—sharing the fruits with the populace. This idea of linking the legitimacy of desire to social fairness shares a deep resonance with Master Xunzi’s idea of "nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands."

However, we must note the fundamental divergence between Master Xunzi and Master Mengzi regarding the theory of human nature. Mencius advocates for the innate goodness of nature, believing the sprouts of goodness (benevolence, righteousness, rites, wisdom) are innate; Master Xunzi advocates for the evil nature of man, believing natural disposition tends toward evil, and goodness is the result of later artificial effort (wei). This divergence directly influences their understanding of the origin of Rites.

For Mencius, the origin of Rites lies in the heart’s innate "sense of concession and refusal" (ci rang zhi xin):

"The sense of concession and refusal is the beginning of Rites." (Gongsun Chou I)

"The feeling of compassion is common to all men; the feeling of shame and aversion is common to all men; the feeling of respect and reverence is common to all men; the feeling of right and wrong is common to all men. Compassion is benevolence; shame and aversion are righteousness; respect and reverence are Rites; right and wrong are wisdom. These four are not conferred upon us from without; we are born with them; we simply do not reflect upon them." (Gongsun Chou I)

For Mencius, Rites are internal to the human heart, the natural unfolding of the "feeling of respect and reverence." Thus, the origin of Rites is not external institutional design but the internal flourishing of innate character.

For Xunzi, however, the origin of Rites is precisely in external institutional design—"The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them." Rites do not exist naturally within human nature; Rites were created by the Former Kings to deal with the chaos resulting from human desires.

These two views seem irreconcilable, yet upon deeper analysis, they may be viewed as addressing the same issue from different dimensions. The "Rites" Mencius speaks of primarily refer to the spirit of Rites—the heart of reverence and concession; the "Rites" Xunzi speaks of primarily refer to the institutions of Rites—the norms of measure and boundary. The spirit is internal, the institution external. The internal spirit requires the external institution for realization and protection, while the external institution requires the internal spirit for substance and support. From this perspective, the claims of Mencius and Xunzi are not contradictory but complementary.

However, the focus here is not on reconciling their differences but on deeply understanding Xunzi’s own logic. In Xunzi’s system, "humans are born with desires" is an immutable fact. It is the starting point for his entire theory of Rites. Without desire, Rites are unnecessary; with desire, Rites become possible. Therefore, in Xunzi’s theory of Rites, desire is not an enemy to be eliminated but a force that needs to be guided and accommodated.

We might further ask: Where does the assertion "humans are born with desires" fit within the broader landscape of pre-Qin thought$85

From the Daoist perspective, Master Laozi also acknowledges human desire, but his attitude is one of "reducing desire" (guadu yu). Laozi Chapter 19 states:

"See the unadorned, embrace simplicity, have fewer desires."

And Chapter 46 states:

"There is no greater crime than to desire to have more than one deserves; there is no greater misfortune than not knowing when one has had enough; there is no greater fault than covetousness. Therefore, he who knows that enough is enough will always have enough."

Laozi considered desire the source of calamity. Human misfortune stems from having too many desires and not knowing when one is satisfied. Thus, he advocated for "fewer private interests and reduced desires," even suggesting "non-desire" (wu yu). Laozi Chapter 37 states: "If one abandons desire and maintains stillness, the world will settle itself."

Master Zhuangzi went further, advocating not only for reducing desire but transcending it, reaching the state where "the Utmost Man has no self, the Spiritual Man has no achievement, and the Sage has no name" (Zhuangzi, Xiao Yao You). In Zhuangzi’s view, desire is the manifestation of the "formed mind" (cheng xin), an obstacle obscuring the Dao.

"Great knowledge is broad and expansive; small knowledge is restricted and narrow. Great words are imposing; small words are babbling. When they sleep, their spirits commune; when they wake, their forms open up. They connect and construct with interaction, fighting with their minds daily." (Zhuangzi, Qi Wu Lun)

This "fighting with their minds daily" (ri yi xin dou) is the constant state of the human mind driven by desire. Zhuangzi believed that only by transcending this state, reaching the "loss of self" (wu wo), can one truly comprehend the Great Dao.

Comparing the Daoist position of "reducing desire" or "non-desire" with Xunzi’s position of "nurturing desire," we see a fundamental divergence: Xunzi believed desire cannot and should not be eliminated, but guided and satisfied; Daoism believes desire can and should be transcended, and the state beyond it is true authenticity.

This divergence stems from their differing understanding of "human nature": Xunzi believed desire is human nature, an unchangeable "given," upon which social order must be constructed through post-natal effort (wei); Daoism believed desire is not one's "true nature" (ben zhen), which is "uncarved wood" (pu)—pristine and untouched by desire. Thus, the path of self-cultivation is not guiding desire but returning to the original state.

Yet, even so, there are deep connections between Xunzi and Daoism. Master Xunzi’s "the two support each other and grow" and "return to the Great Unity," with their implied view of dynamic equilibrium and holistic unity, certainly resonate with certain core Daoist concepts. This will be discussed further later.

Furthermore, from the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore, the judgment "humans are born with desires" can be verified in the most primitive human experiences. One of the core motivations for humanity's earliest religious rituals and sacrificial activities was "seeking"—praying for favorable weather, praying for a bountiful hunt, praying for offspring, and praying to be spared from disaster. These acts of "seeking" are based on humanity’s most fundamental desires. Li Ji: Li Yun states:

"The beginning of Rites originated in food and drink. When roasting millet and chopping up pigs, using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands, beating drums with grass bundles—even this seemed sufficient to convey their reverence to the spirits of Heaven and Earth."

"Begins in food and drink" (shi yu yin shi)—the earliest form of Rites started with food and drink. Humans have the desire for food and drink, hence the seeking for food and drink; the seeking leads to rituals appealing to Heaven and Earth for sustenance; this ritual of appeal is the most primitive form of Li. "Roasting millet and chopping up pigs" (fan shu bo tun)—offering roasted millet and young pigs to the spirits. "Using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands" (wu zun er pou yin)—digging pits to hold wine and drinking it by scooping with the hand. "Beating drums with grass bundles" (kui fu er tu gu)—using grass bundles as drumsticks and earthen mounds as drums. These extremely rudimentary sacrificial methods are direct manifestations of "humans are born with desires" in antiquity.

Therefore, Master Xunzi’s taking "humans are born with desires" as the logical starting point for Rites is not only theoretically self-consistent but also verifiable in historical experience. Human desire is the most primitive driving force behind the occurrence of Rites.

Section 2 "When desires are present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek": Distinguishing Desire (Yu) and Seeking (Qiu)

Following "humans are born with desires," Master Xunzi immediately states: "When desires are present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek."

The subtlety of this sentence lies in distinguishing between the concepts of "desire" (yu) and "seeking" (qiu). "Desire" is an internal psychological state—wanting something in the heart. "Seeking" is an external behavioral state—taking action to pursue something. "Desire" does not necessarily lead to "seeking"—if what one desires is readily available, there is no need for deliberate pursuit. Only when "desire is present but unsatisfied" (yu er bu de)—wanting something but being unable to obtain it naturally—does the act of "seeking" arise.

The term "unsatisfied" (bu de) is crucial. Why would one be "unsatisfied"$86 There are at least two possible interpretations:

First Interpretation: Material Scarcity. Human desires are infinite, while material resources are finite. A person wants food, but food is not supplied limitlessly; a person wants clothing, but clothing must be made and acquired. Therefore, "unsatisfied" occurs because resources are limited, and desires cannot be met automatically. This is an economic interpretation, and the most direct one.

A passage in Master Xunzi’s Fu Guo (Enriching the State) can support this interpretation:

"All things share the same space but have different forms; they have no specific title yet have specific uses—this is the nature of things. In human society, people live side-by-side, seeking the same things but following different paths, desiring the same things but having different knowledge. Birth is the beginning for humans, with no escape between Heaven and Earth."

Although all things share space under Heaven and Earth, they possess different forms and uses. People gather together, pursuing the same goals ("seeking the same things"), but use different methods ("different paths"); they desire the same objects ("desiring the same things"), but possess different cognitive abilities ("different knowledge"). This implies that finite resources must be competed for by many people, making "unsatisfied" an inevitable result.

Second Interpretation: The Nature of Desire Itself. Desire is called desire precisely because it points toward something not yet possessed. If something is attained, desire vanishes—or transforms into a new desire. Therefore, "desire is present but unsatisfied" is not only a result of external resource limitations but an intrinsic characteristic of desire itself. Desire inherently points toward the future, toward what is not yet owned. As Master Xunzi states in Zheng Ming (Rectification of Names):

"Desire seeks before attainment; this is what is received from Heaven."

Desire seeks before it is satisfied; this is the nature received from Heaven. Desire inherently carries the characteristic of "unsatisfied"—it always remains in a state of "unfulfillment."

Both interpretations can coexist and should coexist. The first focuses on objective conditions—the finiteness of material resources; the second focuses on subjective conditions—the infinitude of desire itself. The common result of both is "cannot help but seek" (bu neng wu qiu)—people cannot avoid pursuing.

The phrasing of "cannot help but seek" is also noteworthy. Master Xunzi does not say "must seek," but "cannot help but seek"—expressing affirmation through double negation. This phrasing emphasizes the inevitability of the act of "seeking": it is not that people choose to seek, but that they cannot avoid seeking. This carries an almost fatalistic tone—the human act of pursuit is determined by the nature of desire, leaving little room for choice.

From other pre-Qin texts, we can find thought corresponding to this. Guanzi, Mu Min states:

"For those who govern land and people, their focus is on the Four Seasons, their security lies in the storehouses. If the land yields abundance, distant people will come; if the land is cultivated, people will stay; if the storehouses are full, they will know propriety and etiquette; if food and clothing are sufficient, they will know honor and shame."

Although Master Guanzi speaks mainly from a political governance perspective, the underlying logic aligns with Master Xunzi: basic human desires must first be satisfied ("storehouses are full," "food and clothing are sufficient"), only then can propriety and etiquette be discussed. This means the act of "seeking" is the basic mode of human behavior; if "seeking" is not satisfied, higher-order order (Rites and Honor) cannot be established.

In the Zuo Zhuan, Zhao Gong Twenty-Fifth Year, we find Master Zichan’s words on Rites:

"Rites are the constant laws of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth, and the conduct of the people. The constants of Heaven and Earth, and the people follow them. Following the clarity of Heaven, adapting to the nature of Earth, they give rise to the Six Qi (vital forces) and employ the Five Elements. The Qi form the Five Flavors, manifest as the Five Colors, resonate as the Five Tones. If indulged excessively, confusion and disorder arise, and the people lose their nature. Therefore, Rites are established to support them."

Master Zichan links Rites to the constant laws of Heaven and Earth, believing Rites are the manifestation of Heaven’s and Earth’s natural order in the human world. "The conduct of the people" (min zhi xing ye)—Rites are the basis of popular conduct. Why are Rites needed$87 Because "if indulged excessively, confusion and disorder arise, and the people lose their nature." Here, "indulgence" (yin) is precisely the state of "lacking measure and boundary after seeking" that Xunzi mentions later. "Rites are established to support them" (wei li yi feng zhi)—hence Rites are established to uphold them.

It is noteworthy that Master Zichan traces the origin of Rites to the natural order of Heaven and Earth, not solely to human desire. This perspective differs from Xunzi's grounding the origin purely in human nature. However, the two are not contradictory: Human desires are endowed by Heaven and Earth ("received from Heaven"), and Rites are established to respond to these innate desires, bringing them into order. Therefore, the origin of Rites lies both in human nature and in Heaven and Earth.

The I Ching, Xu Gua Zhuan states:

"After Heaven and Earth came the myriad things; after the myriad things came male and female; after male and female came husband and wife; after husband and wife came father and son; after father and son came ruler and minister; after ruler and minister came superiors and inferiors; after superiors and inferiors came Rites and Righteousness to have their proper place."

The establishment of Rites and Righteousness is placed in a grand sequence from Heaven and Earth to the myriad things to human relations. Rites and Righteousness did not appear out of thin air but are the inevitable result of the natural evolution of Heaven, Earth, and all things. Once there is a distinction between superior and inferior, Rites and Righteousness are necessarily required to settle it. This aligns with Xunzi’s logic: If there are desires, there must be seeking; if there is seeking, there must be conflict; if there is conflict, there must be order—and this order is Rites.

Section 3 The Profound Meaning of "Measure, Quantity, Division, Boundary" (Du Liang Fen Jie)

"When seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided."

This sentence follows the preceding one, further expanding the logical chain. Humans have desires, leading to seeking; if seeking lacks "measure and boundary," contention inevitably arises.

The four terms "measure, quantity, division, boundary" (du liang fen jie) are one of the core concepts in Master Xunzi’s theory of Rites. These four terms can be understood separately or as a unified concept.

"Measure" (Du)—Scale, standard. Everything must have a standard by which it is measured. How much is enough$88 What degree is appropriate$89 This is "measure." The wise define names to correspond to reality (Zheng Ming); similarly, there must be a "measure" to gauge the relationship between desire and fulfillment.

"Quantity" (Liang)—Capacity, allocation limit. How much each person can obtain, and how much each resource can be allocated—this is "quantity." "Quantity" is the concrete manifestation of "measure"—"measure" is the abstract standard, "quantity" is the concrete amount.

"Division" (Fen)—Differentiation, distribution. Different people should receive different shares, and different situations should have different norms. This is "division." Master Xunzi especially emphasizes the importance of "division" in the Wang Zhi (Royal Institutions) chapter:

"When divisions are equal, there is no partiality; when status is equal, there is no obedience; when the masses are equal, there is no command. There is Heaven and Earth, yet superiors and inferiors have differences. The enlightened King first established laws and institutions to create distinctions. Two noble ones cannot serve each other, and two lowly ones cannot command each other—this is the decree of Heaven. When status and position are equal and desires/aversions are the same, if things cannot be moderated, contention will inevitably arise, leading to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution. The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them, establishing degrees of rich and poor, noble and base, sufficient for mutual oversight—this is the foundation for nurturing the world. The Book of Documents says: 'To be equal is not to be equal.' This is what is meant."

This passage almost perfectly parallels the opening of the Discourse on Rites, but adds a crucial element—the concrete meaning of "division" (fen) is "to establish degrees of rich and poor, noble and base." Thus, "division" is not simple egalitarian sharing, but a division with gradations (cha deng zhi fen). Different people, according to the height of their virtue and capability, receive different social statuses and material treatments. This differentiation in division is a core function of Rites.

"Boundary" (Jie)—Limit, demarcation. Every distribution must have its boundary, which cannot be crossed. "Boundary" is the guarantee of "division"—without clear limits, "division" becomes meaningless.

Taken together, "measure, quantity, division, boundary" means: the standard for measurement, the quota for allocation, the differentiation of grades, and the inviolable limits. These four elements constitute a complete framework for social order. With this framework, human pursuits can proceed orderly, without descending into chaos.

Why does "lacking measure and boundary" inevitably lead to "contention"$90 The reason is simple: If there is no standard to measure who should get how much, no limit to restrain individual acquisition, no differentiation to distinguish different shares for different people, and no boundary to prevent encroachment, then everyone will strive to seize as many resources as possible. Since resources are finite, contention becomes unavoidable.

Master Xunzi further explains this in the Rong Ru (Honor and Disgrace) chapter:

"Man’s nature is such that he desires choice meats and embroidered clothes for eating and wearing, carriages and horses for traveling, and moreover desires abundance of accumulated wealth. Yet, throughout years and generations, he is never satisfied—this is human nature."

Human nature (ren zhi qing) is never satisfied. One desires choice meats (chu huan) for eating, and fine silks (wen xiu) for wearing; one desires carriages and horses for travel, and wishes to accumulate wealth. "Never satisfied throughout years and generations" (qiong nian lei shi bu zhi bu zu)—it is never enough in a lifetime. This is the "infinite nature of desire." When infinite desire encounters finite resources, and there is no "measure, quantity, division, boundary" to regulate it, contention is the only outcome.

More profoundly, the root of "cannot avoid contention" lies not only in the scarcity of resources but also in the comparative psychology of people. Humans do not just want their own desires satisfied; they want to obtain more than others. Master Xunzi in Fu Guo states:

"Desires and aversions point to the same things. Desires are many, but things are few; when few, contention must arise."

"Desires and aversions point to the same things" (yu e wu tong wu)—the objects toward which human likes and dislikes point are the same. Everyone desires good food, good clothing, and good housing. When all point toward the same scarce resource, conflict is unavoidable.

This profound insight into the competitive nature of humanity is also reflected in the Zuo Zhuan. In the Zuo Zhuan, Xiang Gong Twenty-Sixth Year, it is recorded:

"One who governs a state well ensures that rewards are not over-extended and punishments are not applied too broadly. If rewards are over-extended, one fears they will reach the dissolute; if punishments are too broad, one fears they will reach the virtuous. If one unfortunately errs, it is better to over-reward than to punish too broadly."

Why is "no over-extension of rewards" (shang bu jian) so important$91 Because if rewards lack standards, measures, and boundaries, they lead to "the dissolute" (yin ren, improper people) receiving undue rewards, which in turn provokes dissatisfaction and contention from others. This is the practical footnote to "when seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided."

From the Daoist perspective, Laozi offers a more fundamental reflection:

"Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not strive. Do not value the hard-to-get goods, and the people will not steal. Do not display what arouses desire, and the people’s minds will not be confused." (Laozi, Chapter 3)

Laozi’s strategy is to eliminate the motive for contention at its source: If worthiness is not praised, people will not compete for fame; if hard-to-get goods are not treasured, people will not steal; if desirable objects are not displayed, people’s minds will not be disturbed. This is a "taking the firewood out from under the cauldron" strategy: instead of using "measure and boundary" to regulate contention, it eliminates the very conditions that trigger contention.

The divergence between Xunzi and Laozi is most vivid here. Xunzi believed desire is ineliminable, and contention is its inevitable result, thus requiring external institutions (Rites) to regulate it; Laozi believed contention can be fundamentally avoided—simply by not stimulating human desire.

However, we might ask: Is Laozi’s strategy truly feasible$92 Is "not displaying what arouses desire" possible$93 Since human desire is "born with" and "received from Heaven," can it really be eliminated simply by "not seeing" it$94 If a hungry person does not see food, does he cease to be hungry$95 If a cold person does not see clothing, does he cease to be cold$96 From this angle, Xunzi’s position seems more realistic and pragmatic. He does not fantasize about eliminating desire but faces its existence and attempts to establish a rational order for it.

Yet, Laozi’s critique also holds profound insight. The contention caused by "exalting the worthy" and the theft resulting from "valuing rare goods" have indeed occurred frequently in historical practice. Excessive competition and comparison certainly exacerbate social chaos. Therefore, Daoist reflection serves as a useful supplement to Confucian ritual theory—while establishing "measure and boundary," one must also guard against excessive stimulation and temptation.

Section 4 "Contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution": The Vicious Cycle from Contention to Destitution

"Contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution." (Zheng ze luan, luan ze qiong.)

These six characters describe a vicious cycle—or more accurately, a process of accelerated decline—from "contention" to "chaos" to "destitution."

"Contention" (Zheng)—When people pursue their own interests without "measure and boundary," conflict is unavoidable. You want this land, and I want this land too; you want to be the leader, and I want to be the leader—contention arises.

"Chaos" (Luan)—The direct consequence of contention is the disintegration of social order. When everyone is fighting for themselves, any existing order is destroyed. The strong oppress the weak, the many attack the few, the cunning deceive the simple—society descends into a chaotic state of survival of the fittest.

"Destitution" (Qiong)—The final result of chaos is that everyone falls into difficulty. Why$97 Because chaos means the collapse of social cooperation. Humans are able to survive and develop because they can create value far beyond individual capacity through social division of labor and cooperation. Once society falls into chaos, cooperation is impossible, and everyone must rely on their own strength for survival, yet individual strength is extremely limited. Therefore, the ultimate outcome of chaos is not that some win and some lose, but that everyone loses—"destitution."

Master Xunzi offers an extremely insightful exposition of this in the Wang Zhi chapter:

"Water and fire have qi but no life; grass and trees have life but no knowledge; birds and beasts have knowledge but no righteousness. Man has qi, has life, has knowledge, and also has righteousness, therefore he is most esteemed under Heaven. Oxen are stronger than men in power, and horses are faster than men in running, yet oxen and horses serve man. Why$98 Because man can form groups, while they cannot. Why can man form groups$99 Because of division (fen). How is division put into practice$100 Because of righteousness (yi). Therefore, when division is implemented by righteousness, there is harmony (he); harmony leads to unity (yi); unity leads to great strength (duo li); great strength leads to power (qiang); power overcomes things (sheng wu); thus, palaces can be built. Thus, ordering the four seasons, tailoring the myriad things, benefiting the world inclusively—there is no other reason than achieving this through division and righteousness."

This passage is highly critical. Man is weaker than the ox and slower than the horse, yet man commands them—why$101 Because man can "form groups" (neng qun)—forming an orderly social collective. How can man "form groups"$102 Because of "division" (fen)—social division of labor and hierarchical differentiation. How can "division" be implemented$103 Because of "righteousness" (yi)—principles of justice and moral norms. With "righteousness" realizing "division," harmony (he) is achieved; harmony leads to unity (yi); unity leads to "great strength" (duo li); great strength leads to "power" (qiang); power leads to "overcoming things" (sheng wu)—hence, homes can be built, seasons ordered, and things managed.

Conversely, without "division and righteousness" (fen yi)—without division of labor and moral norms—man cannot "form groups" and cannot form an effective social organization. Without a collective, individual strength is insignificant—even less than that of oxen and horses. This is the deeper meaning of "destitution" (qiong): not merely material lack, but a fundamental insufficiency in the capacity for survival.

Therefore, the proposition "contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution" reveals a profound sociological principle: Social order is a prerequisite for human survival. Without order, there is no cooperation; without cooperation, there is no production; without production, there is no survival. Contention destroys order, and thus destroys the basis of human existence.

This principle is echoed extensively in pre-Qin texts. In the Analects, Ji Shi chapter, Master Kong discusses the difference between a world under the Dao and one without it:

"When the world follows the Dao, rites, music, and military campaigns proceed from the Son of Heaven. When the world does not follow the Dao, rites, music, and military campaigns proceed from the feudal lords. If they proceed from the feudal lords, perhaps ten generations will pass without the rule being lost to lesser officials; if they proceed from high officials, perhaps five generations will pass without the rule being lost; if subsidiary ministers control the destiny of the state, perhaps three generations will pass without the rule being lost. When the world follows the Dao, governance does not fall into the hands of high officials. When the world follows the Dao, the common people do not engage in debate."

"When the world does not follow the Dao" (tian xia wu Dao)—that is, when social order collapses—the consequence is the continuous downward shift of power and the eventual disintegration of society, leading to ruin. "Perhaps ten generations will pass without the rule being lost" (gai shi shi xi bu shi yi)—when feudal lords exercise the authority of the Son of Heaven arbitrarily, ruin follows within about ten generations. This is precisely the political manifestation of "contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution."

The Zuo Zhuan, Yin Gong Eleventh Year records a famous statement:

"Rites are what organize the state, stabilize the ancestral altars, order the people, and benefit future generations." (Li, jing guo jia, ding she ji, xu min ren, li hou si ye.)

The function of Rites is to manage the state, stabilize the altars, order the people, and benefit descendants. Conversely, without Rites, the state cannot be managed, the altars cannot be stabilized, the people cannot be ordered, and descendants cannot benefit—this is the concrete reality of "destitution."

In the Guo Yu, there is a similar discussion:

"For sacrifice is the great constant of the state; and constants are what perfect governance. Therefore, one must be cautious in establishing sacrifices as the state's standard."

Sacrifice (one of the most important expressions of Rites) is the great constant of the state, the core element of political operation. If sacrifice is chaotic, politics becomes chaotic; if politics is chaotic, the state perishes.

From the perspective of ancient mythology, the pattern of "contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution" is reflected in ancient narratives. The Shang Shu, Yao Dian describes the age of Emperor Yao:

"The people were bright and clear; the various states harmonized; the myriad people lived in peaceful transition to order." (Bai xing zhao ming, xie he wan bang, li min yu bian shi yong.)

In the time of Emperor Yao, the people were enlightened, the states harmonized, and the populace lived in peace. This was a golden age of complete order. In contrast, the myths preceding this, such as Gonggong’s rage against Mount Buzhou and Chiyou’s rebellion, represent the archetypal narratives of "contention leading to chaos." Gonggong contended with Zhuanxu for the throne, resulting in the pillar of Heaven breaking and the Earth’s ropes snapping—the order of Heaven and Earth itself was destroyed, let alone human order!

The Shang Shu, Lü Xing also states:

"Chiyou was the first to create disorder, which spread to the common people. All men became thieves and brigands, robbing, grasping, and acting rebelliously. ... The Miao people did not accept benevolent guidance, so punitive measures were imposed on them, leading to the enactment of the Five Punishments, called 'Law.' Innocents were slaughtered, and the cruel practices of cutting off the nose, slicing off the foot, boring the skull, and tattooing the face were initiated."

Chiyou created disorder, which spread to the common people, and the world descended into great chaos. The Miao people rejected benevolent rule and instead used cruel punishments, resulting in even greater chaos. This is the ancient version of "contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution."

Section 5 "The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them": The Former Kings and the Creation of Rites

"The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them." (Xian wang e qi luan ye, gu zhi li yi yi fen zhi.)

This sentence marks the turning point of the entire passage. The descent from "humans are born with desires" to "chaos leads to destitution" describes a downward trajectory from human nature to chaos; "The Former Kings detested this chaos" signals a reversal—the beginning of an upward trajectory from chaos toward order.

First, who are the "Former Kings" (Xian Wang)$1

In the discourse of pre-Qin Confucians, "Former Kings" usually refers to the Sage Kings of antiquity—Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, and Wu. These Sage Kings are regarded as the creators of Rites and the founders of civilization. Master Xunzi says in the Fei Xiang (Against Physiognomy) chapter:

"The Sage measures others by himself. Thus, by measuring man by man, emotion by emotion, category by category, efficacy by utility, and the Dao by its ultimate extent, antiquity and the present are one. If categories do not contradict, the principle remains the same even over long periods."

The Sages understood human nature deeply—human desires, contention, and destitution—and thus could design rational institutions to respond to these problems.

However, in Xunzi’s usage, "Former Kings" may refer not only to specific historical figures but also to a theoretical concept: the "wisdom capable of creating Rites and Righteousness." Master Xunzi states in Xing’e:

"The Sages accumulated reflection and practiced artificial cultivation (wei), thereby generating Rites and Righteousness and establishing laws and standards. Therefore, Rites, Righteousness, laws, and standards are born from the artificiality (wei) of the Sages, not from human nature originally."

Rites, Righteousness, laws, and standards are created through "accumulated reflection and practiced artificial cultivation" (ji si lü, xi wei gu)—long-term thought and practice. They are not products of human natural disposition but achievements of human rational creation. Therefore, "Former Kings" here represents the "rational creators"—those capable of deeply observing the defects of human nature and designing appropriate solutions.

"Detested this chaos" (e qi luan ye)—The character e (恶) can mean "to detest" (wù), but it can also be understood more broadly as "to be concerned about"—the Former Kings not only disliked chaos but were deeply worried about its consequences. It was this concern that drove them to establish Rites and Righteousness.

"So they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them" (gu zhi li yi yi fen zhi)—Here appear two key terms: "establish" (zhi) and "differentiate" (fen).

"Establish" (Zhi)—To create, to manufacture. This character is vital as it implies the artificial nature (ren wei xing) of Rites. Rites do not exist inherently but are artificially established. This aligns perfectly with the concept of wei (artificial effort) in Xunzi’s Xing’e theory—the natural state of humanity is chaos, and order is established through artificial effort—wei. Rites are the highest achievement of wei.

However, does "establish" (zhi) mean Rites were created entirely from scratch$2 Probably not. Although Xunzi emphasizes the artificial nature of Rites, he does not believe they are arbitrary. The establishment of Rites must conform to certain principles—ensuring that "desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires"—meaning the design of Rites must align with the balance between human desires and material resources. This balance is objective, not subjectively imagined by the Former Kings. Therefore, the "establishment" (zhi) by the Former Kings was less about "creation" and more about "discovery"—discovering the laws of balance between desire and resources and institutionalizing them.

"Differentiate among them" (Fen zhi)—The character fen here has a dual meaning. First, "to distinguish"—to classify people according to different standards, granting them different statuses, rights, and obligations. Second, "to distribute"—to allocate social resources according to certain standards, ensuring everyone receives their due share.

The Wang Zhi chapter provides a more detailed exposition of fen:

"When divisions are equal, there is no partiality; when status is equal, there is no obedience; when the masses are equal, there is no command. ... Two noble ones cannot serve each other, and two lowly ones cannot command each other—this is the decree of Heaven. When status and position are equal and desires/aversions are the same, if things cannot be moderated, contention will inevitably arise, leading to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution. The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them, establishing degrees of rich and poor, noble and base, sufficient for mutual oversight—this is the foundation for nurturing the world."

"Division" (fen) is not the end goal but a means. Through "division," "harmony" (he) is achieved; through harmony, "unity" (yi) is achieved; through unity, "great strength" (duo li) is achieved. Everyone has their position, their function, their share—farmers have their fields, merchants their goods, artisans their tasks, officials their duties, lords their lands. Each stays in their place and performs their duty, and society becomes orderly.

This idea resonates with the Analects. In the Yan Yuan chapter, Master Kong’s response to Duke Jing of Qi’s inquiry about governance is:

"If the ruler is a ruler, the minister a minister, the father a father, and the son a son." (Jun jun, chen chen, fu fu, zi zi.)

"Ruler as ruler, minister as minister, etc."—everyone acts according to their station. This is the most concise expression of "division" (fen).

The Analects, Zi Lu chapter further emphasizes this:

Zi Lu asked, "If the ruler of Wei awaits your service to govern, what will you take as the first thing$3" The Master said, "It must be to rectify names (zheng ming)!" Zi Lu said, "Is that so$4 You are too idealistic! How should they be rectified$5" The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, You! A gentleman, concerning what he does not know, should take a reserved attitude. If names are not rectified, speech will not accord with the truth. If speech does not accord with the truth, affairs cannot be carried to completion. If affairs cannot be carried to completion, rites and music will not flourish. If rites and music do not flourish, punishments and penalties will not be appropriate. If punishments and penalties are not appropriate, the people will not know where to put their hands and feet. Therefore, a gentleman’s names must be such that they can be spoken, and what is spoken must be practicable."

Master Kong believed the primary task of governance is "rectifying names" (zheng ming)—ensuring names match realities. If names are confused (ming fen luan le), speech does not flow smoothly; if speech does not flow smoothly, affairs cannot be completed; if affairs are not completed, Rites and Music will not flourish. This chain clearly illustrates the fundamental importance of "names and divisions" (ming fen), or "division" (fen), for social order.

From the ancient perspective, the narrative of "Former Kings establish Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them" is widely paralleled in pre-Qin literature. The Shang Shu, Yao Dian records the governance of Emperor Yao:

"He was able to illuminate excellent virtue, thus bringing harmony to the Nine Relatives. When the Nine Relatives were harmonious, he brought order to the Hundred Clans. When the Hundred Clans were enlightened and clear, he harmonized the Myriad States." (Ke ming jun de, yi qin jiu zu. Jiu zu ji mu, ping zhang bai xing. Bai xing zhao ming, xie he wan bang.)

Emperor Yao first "illuminated virtue," then "harmonized the Nine Relatives," then "brought order to the Hundred Clans," and finally "harmonized the Myriad States"—this is a process of constructing order from the inside out, from the near to the far. "Bringing order to the Hundred Clans" (ping zhang bai xing)—ensuring all officials have their proper sequence and know their duties—is the concrete practice of "establishing Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them."

The Shang Shu, Hong Fan records that Ji Zi presented the "Nine Categories" (the nine great laws for governing the state) to King Wu of Zhou, which include:

"The Five Matters: First, appearance (mao); second, speech (yan); third, sight (shi); fourth, hearing (ting); fifth, thought (si). Appearance should be reverent (gong), speech obedient (cong), sight clear (ming), hearing acute (cong), and thought wise (rui). Reverence achieves solemnity; obedience achieves order; clarity achieves sagacity; acuity achieves planning; wisdom achieves sainthood."

The "Five Matters"—demeanor, speech, observation, hearing, thought—each has its standard: reverence, obedience, clarity, acuity, wisdom. This is the concrete manifestation of "measure and boundary" at the level of personal cultivation. Through regulating individual conduct, the construction of social order is achieved.

Section 6 "Nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands": The Positive Ritualism of Nurturing and Satisfying

"Thereby nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands." (Yi yang ren zhi yu, gei ren zhi qiu.)

This sentence is extremely concise and reveals one of the core tenets of Master Xunzi’s theory of Rites: the purpose of Rites is not to suppress desire but to satisfy it.

"Nurture" (Yang)—To rear, to nourish. This word is finely chosen. It suggests an attitude of care, a posture of fostering. Human desire is like a sapling that needs careful cultivation and guidance to grow—it cannot be allowed to grow wild (it would become a weed), nor can it be uprooted (then nothing would remain). "Nurture" means finding an appropriate way between these two extremes.

"Satisfy" (Gei)—To supply, to fulfill. "Satisfying human demands" (gei ren zhi qiu) means fulfilling human pursuits. This word indicates that Rites do not just set limits but actively provide satisfaction. Rites are not a wall that only says "no"; they are a system that can say "yes"—telling people that their needs can be met through legitimate means.

This stance can be termed "Positive Ritualism"—the function of Rites is not only negative restriction (telling people what not to do) but also positive fulfillment (telling people what can be done and how to do it).

This idea of "Positive Ritualism" has precursors in Master Kong’s thought. In the Analects, Yang Huo chapter, it is recorded:

The Master said, "What do Rites mean$6 Do they mean jade and silk$7 What does Music mean$8 Does it mean bells and drums$9"

Master Kong points out that Rites are not merely external forms like jade and silk, and Music is not merely external sounds like bells and drums. The essence of Rites and Music lies in their inner spiritual meaning. And this spiritual meaning includes responding to and fulfilling human emotional needs.

In the Analects, Ba Yi chapter, there is a profound statement:

Lin Fang asked about the root of Rites. The Master said, "A great question! As for Rites, it is better to be frugal than extravagant; as for mourning, it is better to be sorrowful than formal."

Master Kong believed the root of Rites lies in true feeling and practical sentiment, not in external elaborateness. The root of mourning Rites lies in inner grief, not in the perfection of ceremony. This shows that Rites are meant to accommodate human emotions—they are a means of emotional expression and realization.

Master Xunzi further systematized this idea. In his view, the "nurturing desire" function of Rites is manifested in several aspects:

First, Rites provide rational means for satisfying material needs. Master Xunzi discusses the specifications of Rites concerning food, clothing, housing, and utensils later in the Discourse on Rites; the core purpose of these specifications is to ensure that everyone receives material satisfaction corresponding to their social status.

Second, Rites provide rational means for expressing emotional needs. Master Xunzi discusses Rites such as mourning and sacrifice, which are highly emotionally charged. Mourning Rites are for expressing and accommodating grief—when a relative passes away, one is deeply sorrowful; the mourning Rite provides a set of ceremonies that allow one to appropriately express and vent this sorrow, preventing excessive grief that harms the body, and avoiding suppressing emotion until it festers. Master Xunzi says:

"As for the Rite of Three Years’ Mourning, what is it for$10 It is to establish culture (wen) in accordance with genuine emotion (qing), to convey the distinction between kinship, nobility, and baseness, and to conclude the period of the final interment with sorrow and reverence." (Li Lun)

This is a concrete manifestation of Rites "nurturing desire" (accommodating emotional needs).

Third, Rites provide rational pathways for realizing social needs. Humans have not only material and emotional needs but also social needs—the desire to be respected, recognized, and to belong. By setting clear social hierarchies and behavioral norms, Rites allow everyone to know their place in society and what they should expect. This clarity itself provides a sense of security and belonging.

"Nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands" stands in sharp contrast to the Daoist strategies of "reducing desire" or "non-desire." In Daoism, desire is seen as needing reduction or elimination; in Xunzi, desire is seen as needing satisfaction and guidance. These two strategies stem from fundamentally different views of human nature and society.

The Daoist strategy can be summarized as "subtraction"—reducing desire and returning to simplicity. Laozi says:

"The five colors blind the eye; the five tones deafen the ear; the five flavors dull the palate; racing and hunting inflame the mind; hard-to-get goods impede conduct. Thus the Sage nourishes the belly, not the eye; so he rejects the latter and takes the former." (Laozi, Chapter 12)

Laozi believed excessive sensory stimulation damages sensory capacity and mental health. Therefore, the Sage satisfies only basic physiological needs ("nourishes the belly") and does not pursue excessive sensory enjoyment ("not the eye").

Xunzi’s strategy can be summarized as "addition"—acknowledging desire, satisfying it, but guiding and regulating it during satisfaction. This is a more active and realistic strategy. It does not fantasize about changing human nature but, by acknowledging it, constructs a system capable of reasonably satisfying that nature.

A passage in Li Ji: Yue Ji can be seen as echoing Xunzi’s idea of "nurturing desire":

"Man is born quiet; this is the nature endowed by Heaven. Stimulated by things, he is moved; this is the desire of nature. When things arrive, he knows them, and then preferences and aversions are formed. If preferences and aversions are without moderation internally, and knowledge is lured externally, and one fails to reflect internally, the principle of Heaven is extinguished. For the stimuli from things are endless, and human preferences and aversions are unrestrained, so that when things arrive, man is transformed by things. Man being transformed by things means extinguishing the principle of Heaven and exhausting human desire."

This passage points out that if human likes and dislikes are "without moderation internally" (wu jie yu nei), man is transformed by external things, ultimately "extinguishing the principle of Heaven and exhausting human desire." Here, the opposition between "principle of Heaven" and "human desire" emerges. However, it is worth noting that this passage does not advocate "extinguishing desire" but "restraining desire" (jie yu)—setting limits on desire. This aligns with Xunzi’s "nurturing desire"—"nurturing" inherently includes "restraining," much like nurturing a sapling requires pruning its branches.

Section 7 "This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires": Dynamic Balance between Desire and Material Things

"This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires." (Shi yu bi bu qiong hu wu, wu bi bu qu yu yu.)

This sentence is one of the core propositions in Master Xunzi’s theory of Rites, and its profound insight warrants repeated reflection.

"Desires do not exhaust material things" (yu bu qiong hu wu)—Material resources will never be entirely depleted by human desire. That is, material resources can always supply human desires; there will never be a situation where resources are completely exhausted.

"Material things are not subjugated by desires" (wu bu qu yu yu)—Material things will never expand to the point of completely consuming all resources. That is, desire will never swell to the point of overwhelming all material things.

These two phrases express a dynamic state of equilibrium: Desire does not exhaust resources, and resources are not subdued by desire. The two maintain a tension, a relationship of mutual constraint and mutual support.

Why is it "not exhaust" (bu qiong) rather than "equal to"$11 Why is it "not subjugated" (bu qu) rather than "unrelated"$12 Because Master Xunzi deeply recognized that the relationship between desire and material things is not a static relationship of equal measure but a dynamic interaction. Desire is constantly changing, and material resources are also constantly changing. The task of Rites is not to establish a fixed balance once and for all, but to continuously maintain this dynamic equilibrium—ensuring that both remain in a state of "not exhausting" and "not subjugated."

This concept of dynamic balance is exceedingly profound. It implies that Master Xunzi is not seeking a rigid, static order but a flexible order capable of adapting to change. This echoes the Daoist concept of "dynamic harmony" in many ways.

Laozi states:

"Is not the way of Heaven like the bending of a bow$13 What is high, it presses down; what is low, it raises up. What is excessive, it diminishes; what is deficient, it supplements. The way of Heaven diminishes the excessive and supplements the deficient. The way of man is otherwise: it diminishes the deficient to serve the excessive. Who can have excess to serve the world$14 Only the one who possesses the Dao." (Laozi, Chapter 77)

The "way of Heaven" (Tian zhi Dao) described by Laozi—pressing down the high, raising up the low, diminishing the excessive, supplementing the deficient—is precisely a mechanism of dynamic equilibrium. When one side becomes too much, it is curtailed; when one side is insufficient, it is supplemented. This deeply resembles Master Xunzi’s dynamic balance between desire and material resources—they interact, constrain, and support each other.

The difference is that Laozi attributes this dynamic balance to the "Way of Heaven"—Nature itself possesses this self-regulating capacity; whereas Xunzi attributes it to the "Establishments of the Former Kings"—it must be realized through active institutional design. This is the fundamental divergence between Daoist "non-action" (wu wei) and Confucian "active effort" (you wei)—Daoism believes Nature has self-regulating ability and thus advocates letting things be; Confucianism believes human society differs from Nature and requires active institutional construction to maintain order.

However, if we analyze closely, Master Xunzi’s designed institutions (Rites) aim precisely at achieving a "Nature-like" balance—"the two support each other and grow." Does this imply that although Xunzi advocates for "active effort," the goal of this effort is to attain a state of "Nature"$15 That is, the best institution is one that mimics the self-regulating mechanism of the natural world$16

This hypothesis can be supported by another passage in Master Xunzi’s work. In Tian Lun (Discourse on Heaven):

"The movement of Heaven is constant; it does not exist for Yao, nor perish for Jie. Respond to it with order, and there will be auspiciousness; respond to it with chaos, and there will be misfortune."

The constant laws of Heaven do not depend on sage kings or perish because of tyrants. Responding to these laws with proper governance leads to auspiciousness; responding with chaos leads to misfortune. Here, "responding with order" (ying zhi yi zhi) is the construction of artificial institutions; but this construction must "respond to" (ying) the constant laws of Heaven.

Therefore, although Xunzi emphasizes the artificial nature of Rites, he does not believe Rites can violate the Way of Heaven. The "establishment" (zhi) of Rites must be based on the laws of Heaven and Earth. "This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires"—this dynamic balance itself might be the manifestation of the Way of Heaven in human society.

From the perspective of the I Ching, the proposition "desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires" is extremely close to the spirit of the Tai (Peace/Concord) Hexagram:

"Tai: Small things go out, great things come in. Auspicious and successful."

Tai Hexagram has the Earth above and Heaven below, symbolizing the harmony and intercourse of Heaven and Earth. Yang energy rises, and Yin energy descends; the two interact and blend, allowing all things to flow smoothly and prosperously. This state of Yin-Yang interaction is a vivid depiction of the dynamic balance Master Xunzi describes between desire and material resources—the two communicate, constrain, and support each other.

The Tuan Zhuan for the Tai Hexagram states:

"When Heaven and Earth mingle, all things are connected. When superiors and inferiors interact, their intentions are the same. Internally Yin, externally Yang; internally strong, externally yielding; internally the superior man, externally the lesser man."

When Heaven and Earth interact, all things connect; when superiors and inferiors interact, intentions align. This state of "interaction" (jiao)—mutual exchange and action—is a vibrant portrayal of "the two support each other and grow."

Section 8 "The two support each other and grow, this is the origin of Rites": A Cosmological Vision of Co-existence and Mutual Growth

"The two support each other and grow, this is the origin of Rites." (Liang zhe xiang chi er zhang, shi li zhi suo qi ye.)

This final sentence of the section serves as the summary and the ultimate principle of Master Xunzi’s theory of Rites. The "two" refer to desire and material things (or more broadly, human needs and the provision of Heaven and Earth). "Support each other" (xiang chi) means mutual support and maintenance. "And grow" (er zhang) means they grow together.

The phrase "support each other and grow" conveys an extremely high realm. It does not mean desire is suppressed or resources are saved—that would be a static, passive balance. It means desire and material things grow together—desire develops continuously under proper guidance, and material resources increase through rational utilization—the two mutually promote and drive each other, forming a virtuous cycle of upward spiral.

This concept of "co-existence and mutual growth" has deep roots in pre-Qin thought.

The I Ching, Xi Ci Zhuan (Commentary on the Images) states:

"One Yin and one Yang constitute the Dao. That which follows it is goodness (shan); that which completes it is nature (xing)."

The alternation of Yin and Yang is the Dao. Yin and Yang are not adversarial; they complement and push each other. Just like Master Xunzi’s description of the relationship between desire and material things—it is not a zero-sum game (one increases as the other decreases), but a positive-sum game (both can grow together).

Laozi Chapter 42 states:

"The Dao produced One; One produced Two; Two produced Three; Three produced the myriad things. The myriad things carry Yin on their back and embrace Yang in their arms, and are harmonized by the vital qi between them."

"The myriad things carry Yin on their back and embrace Yang in their arms, and are harmonized by the vital qi between them" (Wan wu fu yin er bao yang, chong qi yi wei he)—all things contain both Yin and Yang forces, which achieve harmony through their "intermingling qi" (chong qi). This cosmological view of Yin-Yang harmony bears a deep structural similarity to Master Xunzi’s "dynamic balance" in the social realm.

From the perspective of ancient mythology, the idea of "co-existence and mutual growth" can be traced back to even more ancient cosmological traditions. The interactions between various deities and natural forces recorded in the Shan Hai Jing often exhibit a kind of dynamic balance—different forces constrain and supplement each other, jointly maintaining the operation of the world.

In the Guo Yu, Zheng Yu, there is a famous discourse by Shi Bo:

"For harmony truly begets things; uniformity cannot be sustained. To balance the other with the other is called harmony, thus it can be abundant and bring things back to it. If one uses the same to supplement the same, everything will eventually be discarded. Therefore, the Former Kings mixed Earth with Metal, Wood, Water, and Fire to complete the hundred things."

"Harmony truly begets things; uniformity cannot be sustained" (He shi sheng wu, tong ze bu ji)—"Harmony" (harmony within difference) creates all things, while "uniformity" (complete sameness) cannot develop continuously. This idea is profound. Master Xunzi’s "the two support each other and grow" is the manifestation of "harmony begets things" in the social sphere—desire and material things are different, even tense, forces, but precisely because of this difference and tension, they can grow together through mutual interaction. If there were only desire without the constraint of material things, or only material things without the impetus of desire, neither could achieve "growth" (zhang)—sustained development.

"This is the origin of Rites" (shi li zhi suo qi ye)—This is the origin of Rites. What Master Xunzi reveals here is not a simple historical event ("The Former Kings established Rites in such and such a year"), but a philosophical principle: Rites exist because a dynamic balance mechanism is necessary between human desires and the material resources of Heaven and Earth. Rites are this balance mechanism. It is not external coercion but an intrinsic necessity—if human society is to survive and develop, it must have Rites.

With this, Master Xunzi has completed his answer to the ultimate question, "Where do Rites originate$17" His answer’s logic can be summarized in the following steps:

1. Humans are born with desires (Fact of human nature).
2. When desires are present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek (Desire leads to seeking).
3. When seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided (Unordered seeking leads to contention).
4. Contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution (Contention leads to chaos, chaos leads to hardship).
5. The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them (Former Kings created Rites to respond to chaos).
6. Thereby nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands (The function of Rites is to satisfy desire, not to suppress it).
7. This ensures that desires do not exhaust material things, and material things are not subjugated by desires (Rites maintain a dynamic balance between desire and material things).
8. The two support each other and grow (Desire and material things grow together under the regulation of Rites).
9. This is the origin of Rites (This is the origin of Rites).

This logical chain proceeds from human nature, through the analysis of social phenomena, arrives at the concept of institutional design, and ultimately ascends to a cosmological level—"the two support each other and grow." The rigor of its reasoning, the breadth of its vision, and the depth of its principles are unparalleled among the pre-Qin masters.