An Inquiry into the Core of Xunzi's 'On Rites': The Origin of Rites, Textual-Structural Logic, and the Way of Elevation and Reduction

Section 1 "Humans are born with desires": Desire as the Logical Starting Point for Rites

Master Xunzi’s discourse on the origin of Rites begins with the opening sentence: "Where do Rites originate$79 They originate from this: humans are born with desires."

This single sentence, seemingly plain, is in fact earth-shattering. It places the logical starting point of Rites upon "human desire." This implies that, in Master Xunzi’s view, Rites are not divine mandates descended from Heaven, nor abstract principles conceived from thin air by the Sages. Rather, they originate from the most basic, primordial impulse of human life—desire (yu).

What is meant by "humans are born with desires"$80 The phrase "born with" (sheng er you) is extremely crucial. "Born" (sheng) means coeval with birth. "With" (you) means naturally endowed. Combined, "humans are born with desires" means: Desire is human nature, the most fundamental fact of being human. As soon as a person is born, they possess the desire for food, warmth, and security; as they mature, desires for sensory pleasure, fame, and communal living emerge. These desires are not learned later or instilled by someone; they appear simultaneously with life itself.

This position is entirely consistent with Master Xunzi’s arguments in the chapter Xing’e (Human Nature is Evil). Xing’e states:

"The nature of man is evil; his goodness is artificial (wei). The nature of man is such that, being born, he is inclined to profit. If he follows this inclination, contention and rapacity will arise, and courtesy and deference will disappear. Being born, he has feelings of envy and hate. If he follows this, cruelty and violence will arise, and loyalty and trust will disappear. Being born, he has the desires of the ear and eye, loving beautiful sounds and sights. If he follows this, licentiousness and disorder will arise, and rites, righteousness, culture, and principle will disappear."

This passage clearly indicates that humans are born with a tendency toward profit, envy, and hatred, and with desires of the ear and eye for sensory pleasure. These are the characteristics of human nature in its "natural state." The term "evil nature" (xing e) does not mean humans are inherently wicked, but rather that if one allows human natural inclinations to proceed unchecked, the inevitable result is contention, cruelty, and disorder—that is, "evil" consequences.

However, in the Discourse on Rites, Master Xunzi’s tone presents a subtle difference. He does not say "human nature is evil," but rather "humans are born with desires." The word "desire" (yu) itself does not carry a clear good or evil judgment. It is merely a statement of fact: humans have desires. This factual description is neutral. Desire itself is neither good nor evil; it is simply a fundamental dimension of human life.

This point is highly significant. If desire itself were evil, the task of Rites would be "to extinguish desire"—to completely eliminate it. But Master Xunzi clearly does not believe this. He later states clearly, "nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands" (yang ren zhi yu, gei ren zhi qiu)—the task of Rites is not to extinguish desire, but to nurture it and satisfy its demands. This implies that desire possesses legitimacy within Xunzi’s theory of Rites. Desire must be satisfied, but only within certain "measures and boundaries."

This stance has deep roots within the broader tradition of pre-Qin Confucianism. Although Master Kong rarely discussed desire directly, he fully affirmed the legitimacy of basic human needs. In the Analects, Li Ren chapter, it is stated:

"Wealth and status are what men desire. If they cannot be obtained in the proper way (Dao), one should not hold to them. Poverty and lowliness are what men dislike. If they cannot be avoided in the proper way, one should not avoid them."

Master Kong explicitly acknowledges here that the desire for wealth and status is what people want, and the dislike for poverty and lowliness is what people feel. He does not claim that the desire for wealth is inherently wrong; he merely insists that acquiring wealth must be "according to the Way" (yi qi Dao)—that is, through legitimate means. This is entirely consistent with Master Xunzi’s idea of "nurturing human desires"—the goal is not to deny desire itself, but to establish legitimate channels and limits for its satisfaction.

Furthermore, the Analects, Yan Yuan chapter, records a profound dialogue:

Zigong asked about governance. The Master said, "Sufficient food, sufficient military defense, and the people’s trust in them." Zigong asked, "If you must omit one of these three, which should be omitted first$81" The Master said, "Omit the military." Zigong asked, "If you must omit one of the remaining two, which should be omitted first$82" The Master said, "Omit the food. Since antiquity, all have faced death, but the people cannot stand without trust."

In this dialogue, Master Kong lists "sufficient food" as one of the three major necessities of governance, indicating his full recognition of the legitimacy of basic human needs (the most fundamental form of desire). Only when "absolutely unavoidable" should food be omitted, while preserving "trust"—the foundation of social order.

Let us also look at Mencius. Although Mencius advocates for the "goodness of human nature" (xing shan), he also acknowledges that humans have basic desires and that these desires have legitimacy. In Mencius, Liang Hui Wang I, it is said:

"If the King loves sensuality, and the people share that love with him, what harm is there to the King$83"

And further:

"If the King loves wealth, and the people share that love with him, what harm is there to the King$84"

Mencius explicitly states that loving sensuality or loving wealth (material possessions) is acceptable, provided one "shares it with the people" (yu bai xing tong zhi)—sharing the fruits with the populace. This idea of linking the legitimacy of desire to social fairness shares a deep resonance with Master Xunzi’s idea of "nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands."

However, we must note the fundamental divergence between Master Xunzi and Master Mengzi regarding the theory of human nature. Mencius advocates for the innate goodness of nature, believing the sprouts of goodness (benevolence, righteousness, rites, wisdom) are innate; Master Xunzi advocates for the evil nature of man, believing natural disposition tends toward evil, and goodness is the result of later artificial effort (wei). This divergence directly influences their understanding of the origin of Rites.

For Mencius, the origin of Rites lies in the heart’s innate "sense of concession and refusal" (ci rang zhi xin):

"The sense of concession and refusal is the beginning of Rites." (Gongsun Chou I)

"The feeling of compassion is common to all men; the feeling of shame and aversion is common to all men; the feeling of respect and reverence is common to all men; the feeling of right and wrong is common to all men. Compassion is benevolence; shame and aversion are righteousness; respect and reverence are Rites; right and wrong are wisdom. These four are not conferred upon us from without; we are born with them; we simply do not reflect upon them." (Gongsun Chou I)

For Mencius, Rites are internal to the human heart, the natural unfolding of the "feeling of respect and reverence." Thus, the origin of Rites is not external institutional design but the internal flourishing of innate character.

For Xunzi, however, the origin of Rites is precisely in external institutional design—"The Former Kings detested this chaos, so they established Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them." Rites do not exist naturally within human nature; Rites were created by the Former Kings to deal with the chaos resulting from human desires.

These two views seem irreconcilable, yet upon deeper analysis, they may be viewed as addressing the same issue from different dimensions. The "Rites" Mencius speaks of primarily refer to the spirit of Rites—the heart of reverence and concession; the "Rites" Xunzi speaks of primarily refer to the institutions of Rites—the norms of measure and boundary. The spirit is internal, the institution external. The internal spirit requires the external institution for realization and protection, while the external institution requires the internal spirit for substance and support. From this perspective, the claims of Mencius and Xunzi are not contradictory but complementary.

However, the focus here is not on reconciling their differences but on deeply understanding Xunzi’s own logic. In Xunzi’s system, "humans are born with desires" is an immutable fact. It is the starting point for his entire theory of Rites. Without desire, Rites are unnecessary; with desire, Rites become possible. Therefore, in Xunzi’s theory of Rites, desire is not an enemy to be eliminated but a force that needs to be guided and accommodated.

We might further ask: Where does the assertion "humans are born with desires" fit within the broader landscape of pre-Qin thought$85

From the Daoist perspective, Master Laozi also acknowledges human desire, but his attitude is one of "reducing desire" (guadu yu). Laozi Chapter 19 states:

"See the unadorned, embrace simplicity, have fewer desires."

And Chapter 46 states:

"There is no greater crime than to desire to have more than one deserves; there is no greater misfortune than not knowing when one has had enough; there is no greater fault than covetousness. Therefore, he who knows that enough is enough will always have enough."

Laozi considered desire the source of calamity. Human misfortune stems from having too many desires and not knowing when one is satisfied. Thus, he advocated for "fewer private interests and reduced desires," even suggesting "non-desire" (wu yu). Laozi Chapter 37 states: "If one abandons desire and maintains stillness, the world will settle itself."

Master Zhuangzi went further, advocating not only for reducing desire but transcending it, reaching the state where "the Utmost Man has no self, the Spiritual Man has no achievement, and the Sage has no name" (Zhuangzi, Xiao Yao You). In Zhuangzi’s view, desire is the manifestation of the "formed mind" (cheng xin), an obstacle obscuring the Dao.

"Great knowledge is broad and expansive; small knowledge is restricted and narrow. Great words are imposing; small words are babbling. When they sleep, their spirits commune; when they wake, their forms open up. They connect and construct with interaction, fighting with their minds daily." (Zhuangzi, Qi Wu Lun)

This "fighting with their minds daily" (ri yi xin dou) is the constant state of the human mind driven by desire. Zhuangzi believed that only by transcending this state, reaching the "loss of self" (wu wo), can one truly comprehend the Great Dao.

Comparing the Daoist position of "reducing desire" or "non-desire" with Xunzi’s position of "nurturing desire," we see a fundamental divergence: Xunzi believed desire cannot and should not be eliminated, but guided and satisfied; Daoism believes desire can and should be transcended, and the state beyond it is true authenticity.

This divergence stems from their differing understanding of "human nature": Xunzi believed desire is human nature, an unchangeable "given," upon which social order must be constructed through post-natal effort (wei); Daoism believed desire is not one's "true nature" (ben zhen), which is "uncarved wood" (pu)—pristine and untouched by desire. Thus, the path of self-cultivation is not guiding desire but returning to the original state.

Yet, even so, there are deep connections between Xunzi and Daoism. Master Xunzi’s "the two support each other and grow" and "return to the Great Unity," with their implied view of dynamic equilibrium and holistic unity, certainly resonate with certain core Daoist concepts. This will be discussed further later.

Furthermore, from the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore, the judgment "humans are born with desires" can be verified in the most primitive human experiences. One of the core motivations for humanity's earliest religious rituals and sacrificial activities was "seeking"—praying for favorable weather, praying for a bountiful hunt, praying for offspring, and praying to be spared from disaster. These acts of "seeking" are based on humanity’s most fundamental desires. Li Ji: Li Yun states:

"The beginning of Rites originated in food and drink. When roasting millet and chopping up pigs, using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands, beating drums with grass bundles—even this seemed sufficient to convey their reverence to the spirits of Heaven and Earth."

"Begins in food and drink" (shi yu yin shi)—the earliest form of Rites started with food and drink. Humans have the desire for food and drink, hence the seeking for food and drink; the seeking leads to rituals appealing to Heaven and Earth for sustenance; this ritual of appeal is the most primitive form of Li. "Roasting millet and chopping up pigs" (fan shu bo tun)—offering roasted millet and young pigs to the spirits. "Using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands" (wu zun er pou yin)—digging pits to hold wine and drinking it by scooping with the hand. "Beating drums with grass bundles" (kui fu er tu gu)—using grass bundles as drumsticks and earthen mounds as drums. These extremely rudimentary sacrificial methods are direct manifestations of "humans are born with desires" in antiquity.

Therefore, Master Xunzi’s taking "humans are born with desires" as the logical starting point for Rites is not only theoretically self-consistent but also verifiable in historical experience. Human desire is the most primitive driving force behind the occurrence of Rites.