An Inquiry into the Core of Xunzi's 'On Rites': The Origin of Rites, Textual-Structural Logic, and the Way of Elevation and Reduction

Chapter 3 Honoring the Root, Embracing Utility, Returning to the Great Unity: The Dialectic of Culture (Wen) and Principle (Li)

Section 1 "Honoring the root is called culture (wen)": What is the Root, and What is Culture (Wen)$18

"Honoring the root (ben) is called culture (wen); embracing utility (yong) is called principle (li). When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity (Da Yi); this is called Great Flourishing (Da Long)."

This passage is exceedingly concise, with every character bearing immense weight. It discusses the internal structure of Rites—wen and li—and the highest state of their unification—Da Yi and Da Long.

First, let us examine "Honoring the root is called culture (wen)."

"Root" (Ben)—The fundamental basis, the origin. In the context of Rites, what is the "root"$19 Commentators have offered different interpretations. Considering the context, the "root" should refer to the spiritual essence of Rites, the internal basis of Rites. Specifically, the "root" can be understood on the following levels:

First Level: The Root of Emotion (Qing). The root of Rites lies in genuine human emotion. The root of mourning rites lies in sorrow; the root of sacrificial rites lies in reverence; the root of coming-of-age rites lies in the consciousness of adulthood; the root of marriage rites lies in the emotion between husband and wife. These genuine emotions are the fundamental basis that gives Rites meaning. Without genuine emotion, even the most exquisite ceremony is merely an empty shell.

Master Kong had profound insights into this:

"If a man lacks benevolence (ren), what use are Rites to him$20 If a man lacks benevolence, what use is Music to him$21" (Analects, Yong Ye)

If a person lacks inner "benevolence"—genuine emotion and moral consciousness—then what meaning do Rites and Music hold for him$22 This shows that the root of Rites lies in internal emotion and moral consciousness, not in external ceremonial forms.

In the Analects, Yang Huo chapter, Zai Wo questioned Confucius about the three-year mourning period:

Zai Wo asked, "A mourning period of three years is too long! If a gentleman refrains from Rites for three years, Rites will certainly break down; if he refrains from Music for three years, Music will certainly collapse. When the old grain has been consumed and the new grain has come up, when the fire drill has been changed—a year should be enough." The Master said, "Can you eat rice and wear silk and feel at ease$23" Zai Wo replied, "I can feel at ease." The Master said, "If you can feel at ease, then do it! When a gentleman observes mourning, he does not relish delicious food, does not enjoy music, and does not feel comfortable in his dwelling, which is why he does not do these things. Now, if you feel at ease, then do it!" When Zai Wo left, the Master said, "Zai Wo is not benevolent! He was nurtured for three years before being separated from his parents’ care. The three-year mourning period is universally observed. Did Zai Wo receive three years of loving care from his parents$24"

What criterion did Confucius use to judge whether the three-year mourning period should be shortened$25 Not the simplicity or complexity of the ceremony, nor economic calculation, but emotion—"Can you feel at ease$26" If one’s heart is uneasy, the period should not be shortened; if one’s heart is at ease, then do as you please. "Does not relish delicious food, does not enjoy music, does not feel comfortable in his dwelling"—this heartfelt sorrow while observing mourning is the "root" of mourning Rites.

Second Level: The Root of Righteous Principle (Yi). The root of Rites lies not only in emotion but also in righteous principle. Behind every ritual specification, there is a rationale, a principle. The root of sacrificial rites lies in the spirit of "repaying the source and returning to the beginning"—repaying the grace of Heaven, Earth, and ancestors. The root of mourning rites lies in the principle of "cautiously handling death and remembering the distant past"—treating the end of life with solemnity and remembering the departed. The root of coming-of-age and marriage rites lies in the principle of "maturing the individual and establishing the family"—defining the individual's social identity and family relations. These reasons and principles are the root of Ritual Principle (Li Zhi Yi Li Zhi Ben).

Li Ji: Ji Tong states:

"In governing people, nothing is more urgent than Rites. Rites have Five Constants, and none is more weighty than sacrifice. Sacrifice is not something that comes externally from things; it is born from the heart internally. The heart is moved and expresses it through Rites. Therefore, only the virtuous can fully realize the meaning of sacrifice."

"Not something that comes externally from things, but is born from the heart internally" (Fei wu zi wai zhi zhe ye, zi zhong chu sheng yu xin ye)—Sacrifice is not an external form imposed on man, but a natural outflow of internal emotion. "The heart is moved and expresses it through Rites" (Xin chu er feng zhi yi li)—When the heart is moved, it expresses it through Rites. This demonstrates that the "root" (internal emotion and principle) precedes the "culture" (external form).

Third Level: The Root of the Way of Heaven (Tian Dao). On a deeper level, "root" can also refer to the Way of Heaven—the fundamental law of the cosmos. Rites are reasonable not only because they respond to human emotion and embody principles of righteousness, but also because they conform to the Way of Heaven and Earth. Zuo Zhuan, Zhao Gong Twenty-Fifth Year quotes Master Zichan:

"Rites are the constant laws of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth, and the conduct of the people."

Rites are the warp and woof of Heaven, the righteousness of Earth, and the standard for human conduct. Their root lies in the Way of Heaven and Earth.

So, why is "honoring the root" called "culture" (wen)$27 Here, "culture" (wen) does not mean "embellishment" or "splendor" in the usual sense, but carries a deeper meaning.

In the pre-Qin context, "culture" (wen) has multiple meanings, including "literary grace," "texture," "civilization," and "pattern/code." In the Analects, Yong Ye chapter:

"When substance (zhi) overpowers culture (wen), the result is rustic. When culture (wen) overpowers substance (zhi), the result is affectedness (shi). When culture and substance are well-blended, that is the gentleman."

Here, "culture" (wen) is contrasted with "substance" (zhi), referring to external embellishment and expression. However, in the proposition "Honoring the root is called culture (wen)," the meaning of wen is different. It does not refer to external decoration but to "having culture to observe" (you wen ke guan)—when one truly upholds the root, their conduct naturally manifests grace, order, and aesthetic beauty.

This understanding is confirmed by the I Ching, Bi Gua (Adorning Hexagram), Tuan Zhuan:

"When strong and yielding intermingle, this is the pattern of Heaven (tian wen); when culture (wen) illuminates and thereby stops (zhi), this is human culture (ren wen). By observing the pattern of Heaven, one perceives the changes of time; by observing human culture, one transforms the world."

"Human culture" (ren wen)—human civilization—is the result of "illuminating and thereby stopping." "Stopping" (zhi) means having something to uphold—a point of firm adherence. When one has firm adherence ("honoring the root"), their conduct naturally presents itself as civilized and ordered—this is "culture" (wen). Therefore, "Honoring the root is called culture" means: True "culture" is not external decoration but internal adherence—when one truly honors the fundamental basis, "culture" naturally emerges.

This idea is profound. It subverts the common opposition between "culture" (wen) and "substance" (zhi), suggesting that true "culture" actually derives from honoring the "substance" (the "root"). The deepest root yields the most beautiful cultural expression. This aligns with Confucius’s ideal of "well-blended culture and substance" (wen zhi bin bin), but Xunzi goes further, pointing to the intrinsic unity between "culture" and "substance."

Section 2 "Embracing utility is called principle (li)": The Relationship between Utility (Yong) and Principle (Li)

"Embracing utility (yong) is called principle (li)." (Qin yong zhi wei li.)

"Utility" (Yong)—Function, practical application. In the context of Rites, "utility" refers to the actual effect and concrete function of Rites. Rites are not empty displays but possess tangible uses. They are used to regulate human behavior, harmonize human emotion, maintain social order, and distribute social resources. These practical functions constitute the "utility" (yong) of Rites.

"Embracing" (Qin)—Approaching closely, being close to the practical. "Embracing utility" means being close to practical application and not deviating from functional utility. Master Xunzi emphasizes here that Rites cannot become mere formalism detached from their practical function. The design of every ritual specification must have a practical purpose.

"Principle" (Li)—Order, texture, law. "Embracing utility is called principle" means: When one truly approaches the practical function of Rites, one can see the underlying order and principle. Although the specific observances of Rites may be numerous, they possess a clear internal order—when to do what, how much to do, up to what degree—all these have clear rules. And these rules are all derived from practical utility.

The term "principle" (li) has rich meanings in the pre-Qin context. Han Feizi, Jie Lao states:

"Principle (li) is the pattern that completes things. Length and shortness, large and small, round and square, hard and brittle, heavy and light, white and black—these are called principle (li)."

"Principle" (li) is the texture or order of things—the internal determination that makes a thing what it is. Length, shortness, size, squareness, hardness, brittleness, weight, blackness, whiteness—these are all "principles" (li) of things. In the context of Rites, "principle" (li) is the internal determination that makes a Rite what it is—which Rite to use in which occasion, how much material to use, what level of differentiation—all these specific regulations are derived from "utility" (practical function).

Master Xunzi also discusses "principle" (li) in the Zheng Ming chapter:

"All things of the same category and disposition have the same way of discerning things through their innate sense organs, hence they can be compared and correlated. This is why they share a conventional name to mutually recognize one another. Differences in physical form and color texture are distinguished by the eye; differences in sound clarity, turbidity, balanced tuning, or strange tones are distinguished by the ear; differences in sweet, bitter, salty, sour, pungent flavors are distinguished by the mouth; differences in fragrant, foul, pungent, fishy, or strange smells are distinguished by the nose. Differences in tending the sick, hot and cold, smooth and sharp, heavy and light are distinguished by the physical body. Differences in pleasure, sorrow, joy, anger, grief, delight, love, and aversion are distinguished by the mind."

"Color texture" (se li)—color and texture—are objects perceived by the eye. "Texture" (li) is the surface pattern of things, perceptible to the senses. Similarly, the "principle" (li) of Rites is also perceivable and graspable—it is not mysterious or unknowable, but clear and discernible.

By contrasting "Embracing utility is called principle" with "Honoring the root is called culture," we can discover a relationship of complementarity:

• "Honoring the root is called culture" (Gui ben zhi wei wen): Starting from the internal basis, culture and order naturally emerge. This is a process from the inside out.
• "Embracing utility is called principle" (Qin yong zhi wei li): Starting from external function, order and rule naturally manifest. This is a process from the outside in.

The two, one internal and one external, one root and one utility, together constitute the complete internal structure of Rites.

Section 3 "When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity": The State of the Great Unity

"When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity (Da Yi); this is called Great Flourishing (Da Long)."

"When the two combine to form culture" (Liang zhe he er cheng wen)—When the "two" (ben and yong, culture and principle) combine, they constitute true "culture" (wen). Here, wen is a higher-level concept—not simply "grace" or "form," but a perfect state where interior and exterior, root and utility, are unified.

True "culture" (wen) is not empty form divorced from the "root" (ben), nor is it abstract principle divorced from "utility" (yong); it is the organic unification of ben and yong—possessing intrinsic spiritual grounding and effective practical results; conforming to the root of the Way of Heaven and closely adhering to the utility of human affairs.

"Return to the Great Unity" (Yi gui Da Yi)—Returning to the "Great Unity." What is the "Great Unity" (Da Yi)$28

The concept of "Great Unity" is highly significant in the pre-Qin context. In Daoism, "Great Unity" is closely related to the "Dao." Zhuangzi, Tian Xia chapter, when discussing the lineage of ancient scholarship:

"The men of old were complete! They matched the spirits and the luminous, they blended Heaven and Earth, nurtured the myriad things, harmonized the world, and benefited the common people. They were clear about the fundamental numbers and connected to the final measures; their movements encompassed the six directions and four quarters, the small and the large, the fine and the coarse—wherever they moved, they were present. Those whose clarity resided in numbers and measures, ancient laws handed down by court historians still retain much of it. Those whose teachings are scattered throughout the world and established in the Central States, scholars of the Hundred Schools occasionally mention and discuss them... When the world was in great chaos, Sages and the wise were unclear, morality was not unified, and the world grasped one narrow perception and prided themselves on it."

"Morality was not unified" (Dao de bu yi)—In antiquity, morality was unified; later it fractured, and the Hundred Schools each held to one side. The era Master Zhuangzi recalls as "morality unified" is precisely the state of "Great Unity"—where all knowledge, all practice, and all values returned to unity.

In the Li Ji: Li Yun, the concept of "Great Unity" appears in another form:

"For Rites must be based on the Great Unity, which differentiates into Heaven and Earth, transforms into Yin and Yang, changes into the Four Seasons, and arranges into the various spirits. Its descent is called destiny (ming); its official post in Heaven is..."

"Rites must be based on the Great Unity" (Li bi ben yu Da Yi)—The root of Rites lies in the "Great Unity." Here, this "Great Unity" is described as the total source of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things—it differentiates into Heaven and Earth, transforms into Yin and Yang, changes into the Four Seasons, and arranges into the spirits. The root of Rites lies in this total source of the cosmos.

Connecting this passage from Li Ji: Li Yun with Xunzi’s "return to the Great Unity," we can see: Master Xunzi’s "Great Unity" may not just be an abstract philosophical concept but may also possess cosmological significance—it points toward the total harmony of Heaven, Earth, and all things, the ultimate unity of the cosmic order.

When the "culture" (wen) and "principle" (li) of Rites—the root and utility—are perfectly combined, Rites transcend the level of mere human institutions and ascend to the level of the Way of Heaven and Earth—they cease to be merely human creation and become the natural manifestation of the Way of Heaven in the human world. This state is the "Great Unity"—the unification of man and Heaven/Earth, of emotion and culture, of root and utility.

"This is called Great Flourishing" (Fu shi zhi wei Da Long)—This is called "Great Flourishing." "Great Flourishing" is another expression for the "Great Unity." "Great Unity" emphasizes the aspect of "unity"—transcending all division and opposition; "Great Flourishing" emphasizes the aspect of "flourishing"—Rites reaching their utmost, most complete state.

"Great Flourishing" (Da Long) does not mean "greatness" in the ordinary sense of size, but "greatness" in the sense of "nothing surpassing it"—there is no flourishing greater than this. This is the ultimate ideal and the highest standard of Rites.

We might ask: In practice, can the "Great Flourishing" be achieved$29 Or is it merely an ideal, a goal always ahead$30

From the perspective of Master Xunzi’s overall thought, "Great Flourishing" should be attainable—but only by the Sages. The later description, "moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly, he is a Sage," is precisely the description of the practitioner of "Great Flourishing." The Sage can skillfully maneuver among the various levels of Rites ("moving deftly," fang huang zhou xie) and grasp the appropriate order in every detail (qu de qi ci xu)—the highest manifestation of this ability is "Great Flourishing"—the perfect unification of culture (wen) and principle (li).

However, for ordinary people, although "Great Flourishing" cannot be immediately achieved, it can serve as the direction and goal of cultivation. Xunzi, Quan Xue states:

"Thus, without accumulating steps of one pace, one cannot travel a thousand li; without accumulating small streams, one cannot form rivers and seas. A swift horse cannot leap ten paces in one bound; a common nag that trots ten times will cover the distance through perseverance. If one chips away and gives up, rotten wood will not break; if one chips away without stopping, metal and stone can be carved."

The path of self-cultivation lies in accumulation—accumulating step by step, one can eventually reach a very high state. "Great Flourishing," as the highest ideal of Rites, is also approached gradually through continuous cultivation and practice.

The Book of Songs, Da Ya, Han Lu states:

"The happy and contented gentleman, his fortune is also happy and contented."

When the gentleman’s cultivation reaches a state of natural harmony, the blessings of Heaven and Earth naturally descend. This state of "natural harmony" is the manifestation of "Great Flourishing" in life.

Section 4 The Three Tiers and the Life Cycle of Rites: Correspondence

By connecting "begins with simplicity (zhuo), is completed in culture (wen), and ends in joyful calibration (yue jiao)" with the three ranks of "utmost perfection (zhi bei)," "next degree (qi ci)," and "lowest degree (qi xia)," we can see an interesting structural relationship:

"Begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo) corresponds to the primordial form of Rites—simple emotional expression—which bears some correspondence to "the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity" (qi xia fu qing yi gui Da Yi ye). Both point toward the simplicity and authenticity of emotion.

"Completed in culture" (cheng hu wen) corresponds to the perfected form of Rites—elaborate rituals and norms—which corresponds somewhat to "utmost perfection, both emotion and culture are fully realized" (zhi bei, qing wen ju jin) (though qing wen ju jin requires not only completeness of wen but also fullness of qing).

"Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao) corresponds to the harmonious state of Rites—the perfect unification of freedom and order—which is a higher state transcending the distinction between qing and wen.

However, this correspondence is not mechanical. "Begins with simplicity" is the temporal starting point, while "the lowest degree reverts to emotion" is the lowest rank; their similarity lies in "simplicity," but the simplicity of "begins with simplicity" is natural and undeveloped, whereas the simplicity of "reverting to emotion" is a return achieved after development—these two simplicities, though superficially similar, have different connotations.

This reminds us of Zhuangzi’s parable of "Chaos" (Hun Dun):

"The Emperor of the South Sea was named Shu (Haste); the Emperor of the North Sea was named Hu (Suddenness); the Emperor of the Center was named Hun Dun (Chaos). Shu and Hu often met in the dwelling place of Hun Dun, who treated them very well. Shu and Hu conspired to repay Hun Dun’s kindness, saying, 'Every man has seven openings for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing; this one alone has none—let us try to chisel them open for him.' They chiseled one opening a day; after seven days, Hun Dun died."

"Chaos" (Hun Dun)—the undifferentiated state of primordial unity—is the original unity. When artificial "chiseling" (differentiation, embellishment) is imposed upon it, Chaos dies. This parable can be seen as a critical reflection on the developmental process from "simplicity" (zhuo) to "culture" (wen): The original simplicity (Chaos/ zhuo) possesses its own perfection, and artificial embellishment (wen) might actually destroy this perfection.

But Master Xunzi would disagree with Zhuangzi’s view. In Xunzi’s view, although "simplicity" (zhuo) possesses rustic beauty, it is insufficient—society requires "culture" (wen) to establish order and ensure function. "Reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" is merely a fallback position when attainment is impossible, not the ideal to pursue. The ideal remains "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—the perfect unification of emotion and form.

This divergence points again to the fundamental difference between Confucianism and Daoism: their differing evaluations of the value of "culture" (wen). Confucianism affirms the value of civilization, believing the development from primitive to civilized society is progress; Daoism is skeptical of civilization, believing the process of civilization is also a process of alienation—man moves further away from Nature and further away from the Dao.

However, in any case, the fact that Master Xunzi ranks "reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" as one of the tiers of Rites (albeit the lowest) demonstrates his full recognition of the value of "emotion" (qing). In his system, "emotion" is the foundation of Rites—without genuine emotion, even the most exquisite form is worthless.

Section 5 Three Tiers and the Relationship to the Life Cycle of Rites

If we connect "begins with simplicity (zhuo), is completed in culture (wen), and ends in joyful calibration (yue jiao)" with the three ranks of "utmost perfection (zhi bei)," "next degree (qi ci)," and "lowest degree (qi xia)," we can see an interesting structural relationship:

"Begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo) corresponds to the primordial form of Rites—simple emotional expression—which has some correspondence with "the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity" (qi xia fu qing yi gui Da Yi ye). Both point toward the simplicity and authenticity of emotion.

"Completed in culture" (cheng hu wen) corresponds to the perfected form of Rites—elaborate rituals and norms—which has some correspondence with "utmost perfection, both emotion and culture are fully realized" (zhi bei, qing wen ju jin).

"Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao) corresponds to the harmonious state of Rites—the perfect unification of freedom and order—which is a higher state transcending the distinction between qing and wen.

However, this correspondence is not mechanical. "Begins with simplicity" is the temporal starting point, while "the lowest degree reverts to emotion" is the lowest rank; their similarity lies in "simplicity," but the simplicity of "begins with simplicity" is natural and undeveloped, whereas the simplicity of "reverting to emotion" is a return achieved after development—these two simplicities, though superficially similar, have different connotations.

This leads us to recall Zhuangzi’s parable of "Chaos" (Hun Dun):

"The Emperor of the South Sea was named Shu (Haste); the Emperor of the North Sea was named Hu (Suddenness); the Emperor of the Center was named Hun Dun (Chaos). Shu and Hu often met in the dwelling place of Hun Dun, who treated them very well. Shu and Hu conspired to repay Hun Dun’s kindness, saying, 'Every man has seven openings for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing; this one alone has none—let us try to chisel them open for him.' They chiseled one opening a day; after seven days, Hun Dun died."

"Chaos" (Hun Dun)—the undifferentiated state of primordial unity—is the original unity. When artificial "chiseling" (differentiation, embellishment) is imposed upon it, Chaos dies. This parable can be seen as a critical reflection on the developmental process from "simplicity" (zhuo) to "culture" (wen): The original simplicity (zhuo) possesses its own rustic beauty, but artificial embellishment (wen) might actually destroy this perfection.

But Master Xunzi would disagree with Zhuangzi’s view. In Xunzi’s view, although "simplicity" (zhuo) possesses rustic beauty, it is insufficient—society requires "culture" (wen) to establish order and ensure function. "Reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" is merely a fallback position when attainment is impossible, not the ideal to pursue. The ideal remains "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—the perfect unification of emotion and form.

This divergence points again to the fundamental difference between Confucianism and Daoism: their differing evaluations of the value of "culture" (wen). Confucianism affirms the value of civilization, believing the development from primitive to civilized society is progress; Daoism is skeptical of civilization, believing the process of civilization is also a process of alienation—man moves further away from Nature and further away from the Dao.

But in any case, the fact that Master Xunzi ranks "reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" as one of the tiers of Rites (albeit the lowest) demonstrates his full recognition of the value of "emotion" (qing). In his system, "emotion" is the foundation of Rites—without genuine emotion, even the most exquisite form is worthless.

Section 6 The Deep Inquiry into the Relationship between Emotion (Qing) and Culture (Wen)

Having discussed the three tiers of Rites—"emotion and culture fully realized," "emotion and culture alternately prevail," and "revert to emotion to return to the Great Unity"—we must conduct a deeper inquiry into the relationship between "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen).

First, is there an inevitable tension between "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen)$31

Logically, "emotion" (qing) is natural, spontaneous, and individualistic; "culture" (wen) is artificial, normative, and socialized. The relationship between Nature and Artifice, between the individual and society, inherently involves tension. A person’s true inner feeling may not always align with society’s formal requirements—for instance, in mourning Rites, a person might not genuinely feel sorrow (perhaps they were distant from the deceased), yet the Rites require them to display sorrow (because they are a relative). In such a case, "emotion" and "culture" conflict. If they perform sorrow according to the Rites, it is "culture prevailing over emotion" (wen sheng qing)—hypocrisy; if they honestly admit they do not feel sorrow and refuse to perform, it is "emotion prevailing over culture" (qing sheng wen)—impropriety. How to resolve this conflict$32

Master Xunzi does not directly answer this, but inferring from his overall thought, he might say: The educational function of Rites lies precisely here. Through long-term cultivation of Rites and Righteousness, human emotion itself is shaped and elevated—a person cultivated by Rites and Righteousness will no longer have purely natural, spontaneous emotions, but emotions that have been educated and aligned with propriety. He will not only know that he should grieve at a funeral but will genuinely feel grief—because the cultivation of Rites and Righteousness has internalized the spirit of "cautiously handling death and remembering the distant past" into his emotional structure.

Xunzi, Xiu Shen (Self-Cultivation) states:

"Rites are what rectify the self... Therefore, without Rites, man cannot live; without Rites, affairs cannot be completed; without Rites, the state cannot be tranquil."

Rites are used to rectify the self. Through the practice of Rites, both mind and body are rectified—not only does external conduct conform to norms, but internal emotion also tends toward what is proper. This is Master Xunzi’s thought on "transforming nature and establishing artificiality" (hua xing qi wei)—changing human natural disposition through later education and self-cultivation so that it conforms to righteousness.

Second, is the perfect unification of "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen) possible$33

Theoretically, "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin) as the highest ideal implies that the perfect unification of qing and wen is possible. But in practice, this perfect unification is extremely rare—perhaps only achievable by the Sages.

Master Kong’s self-description of his lifelong cultivation:

"The Master said, 'At fifteen, I set my heart on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the Mandate of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was attuned to it. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired without overstepping what was right.'" (Analects, Wei Zheng)

"At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired without overstepping what was right" (Cong xin suo yu, bu yu ju)—By the age of seventy, he could follow his heart's desires without transgressing the rules. This is the vivid embodiment of "emotion and culture fully realized"—the inner emotion ("following the heart's desire") and the external norm ("not overstepping the rules") are completely unified—not by emotion submitting to norms, nor norms suppressing emotion, but emotion itself being in accordance with norms, and norms themselves being what emotion yearns for.

The Zhong Yong (Doctrine of the Mean) states:

"When joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure are not yet aroused, this is called the Mean (Zhong). When they are aroused and all in due measure, this is called Harmony (He). The Mean is the great root of the world; Harmony is the universal path of the world. When the Mean and Harmony are carried to their utmost extent, Heaven and Earth assume their correct positions, and the myriad things are nourished."

"When they are aroused and all in due measure" (Fa er jie zhong jie)—Emotional expression is perfectly appropriate. This is the perfect unification of "emotion" and "culture." "Mean" is the internal state before emotion is aroused—centered and impartial; "Harmony" is the external state after emotion is aroused—harmonious and measured. "Carrying the Mean and Harmony to their utmost extent" (Zhi Zhong He)—reaching the state of Mean and Harmony— "Heaven and Earth assume their correct positions, and the myriad things are nourished." This cosmological description elevates "emotion and culture fully realized" to the level of Heaven and Earth—when an individual’s emotion perfectly unifies with form, the entire cosmos is harmonized because of it.

Section 7 The Relationship between Three Tiers and the Life Cycle of Rites

If we connect "begins with simplicity (zhuo), is completed in culture (wen), and ends in joyful calibration (yue jiao)" with the three ranks of "utmost perfection (zhi bei)," "next degree (qi ci)," and "lowest degree (qi xia)," we can see an interesting structural relationship:

"Begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo) corresponds to the primordial form of Rites—simple emotional expression—which bears some correspondence to "the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity" (qi xia fu qing yi gui Da Yi ye). Both point toward the simplicity and authenticity of emotion.

"Completed in culture" (cheng hu wen) corresponds to the perfected form of Rites—elaborate rituals and norms—which has some correspondence with "utmost perfection, both emotion and culture are fully realized" (zhi bei, qing wen ju jin).

"Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao) corresponds to the harmonious state of Rites—the perfect unification of freedom and order—which is a higher state transcending the distinction between qing and wen.

However, this correspondence is not mechanical. "Begins with simplicity" is the temporal starting point, while "the lowest degree reverts to emotion" is the lowest rank; their similarity lies in "simplicity," but the simplicity of "begins with simplicity" is natural and undeveloped, whereas the simplicity of "reverting to emotion" is a return achieved after development—these two simplicities, though superficially similar, have different connotations.

This leads us to recall Zhuangzi’s parable of "Chaos" (Hun Dun):

"The Emperor of the South Sea was named Shu (Haste); the Emperor of the North Sea was named Hu (Suddenness); the Emperor of the Center was named Hun Dun (Chaos). Shu and Hu often met in the dwelling place of Hun Dun, who treated them very well. Shu and Hu conspired to repay Hun Dun’s kindness, saying, 'Every man has seven openings for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing; this one alone has none—let us try to chisel them open for him.' They chiseled one opening a day; after seven days, Hun Dun died."

"Chaos" (Hun Dun)—the undifferentiated state of primordial unity—is the original unity. When artificial "chiseling" (differentiation, embellishment) is imposed upon it, Chaos dies. This parable can be seen as a critical reflection on the developmental process from "simplicity" (zhuo) to "culture" (wen): The original simplicity (zhuo) possesses its own rustic beauty, but artificial embellishment (wen) might actually destroy this perfection.

But Master Xunzi would disagree with Zhuangzi’s view. In Xunzi’s view, although "simplicity" (zhuo) possesses rustic beauty, it is insufficient—society requires "culture" (wen) to establish order and ensure function. "Reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" is merely a fallback position when attainment is impossible, not the ideal to pursue. The ideal remains "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—the perfect unification of emotion and form.

This divergence points again to the fundamental difference between Confucianism and Daoism: their differing evaluations of the value of "culture" (wen). Confucianism affirms the value of civilization, believing the development from primitive to civilized society is progress; Daoism is skeptical of civilization, believing the process of civilization is also a process of alienation—man moves further away from Nature and further away from the Dao.

But in any case, the fact that Master Xunzi ranks "reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" as one of the tiers of Rites (albeit the lowest) demonstrates his full recognition of the value of "emotion" (qing). In his system, "emotion" is the foundation of Rites—without genuine emotion, even the most exquisite form is worthless.

Section 7 Three Tiers and the Life Cycle of Rites: Correspondence

If we connect "begins with simplicity (zhuo), is completed in culture (wen), and ends in joyful calibration (yue jiao)" with the three ranks of "utmost perfection (zhi bei)," "next degree (qi ci)," and "lowest degree (qi xia)," we can see an interesting structural relationship:

"Begins with simplicity" (shi hu zhuo) corresponds to the primordial form of Rites—simple emotional expression—which bears some correspondence to "the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity" (qi xia fu qing yi gui Da Yi ye). Both point toward the simplicity and authenticity of emotion.

"Completed in culture" (cheng hu wen) corresponds to the perfected form of Rites—elaborate rituals and norms—which has some correspondence with "utmost perfection, both emotion and culture are fully realized" (zhi bei, qing wen ju jin).

"Ends in joyful calibration" (zhong hu yue jiao) corresponds to the harmonious state of Rites—the perfect unification of freedom and order—which is a higher state transcending the distinction between qing and wen.

However, this correspondence is not mechanical. "Begins with simplicity" is the temporal starting point, while "the lowest degree reverts to emotion" is the lowest rank; their similarity lies in "simplicity," but the simplicity of "begins with simplicity" is natural and undeveloped, whereas the simplicity of "reverting to emotion" is a return achieved after development—these two simplicities, though superficially similar, have different connotations.

This leads us to recall Zhuangzi’s parable of "Chaos" (Hun Dun):

"The Emperor of the South Sea was named Shu (Haste); the Emperor of the North Sea was named Hu (Suddenness); the Emperor of the Center was named Hun Dun (Chaos). Shu and Hu often met in the dwelling place of Hun Dun, who treated them very well. Shu and Hu conspired to repay Hun Dun’s kindness, saying, 'Every man has seven openings for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing; this one alone has none—let us try to chisel them open for him.' They chiseled one opening a day; after seven days, Hun Dun died."

"Chaos" (Hun Dun)—the undifferentiated state of primordial unity—is the original unity. When artificial "chiseling" (differentiation, embellishment) is imposed upon it, Chaos dies. This parable can be seen as a critical reflection on the developmental process from "simplicity" (zhuo) to "culture" (wen): The original simplicity (zhuo) possesses its own rustic beauty, but artificial embellishment (wen) might actually destroy this perfection.

But Master Xunzi would disagree with Zhuangzi’s view. In Xunzi’s view, although "simplicity" (zhuo) possesses rustic beauty, it is insufficient—society requires "culture" (wen) to establish order and ensure function. "Reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" is merely a fallback position when attainment is impossible, not the ideal to pursue. The ideal remains "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin)—the perfect unification of emotion and form.

This divergence points again to the fundamental difference between Confucianism and Daoism: their differing evaluations of the value of "culture" (wen). Confucianism affirms the value of civilization, believing the development from primitive to civilized society is progress; Daoism is skeptical of civilization, believing the process of civilization is also a process of alienation—man moves further away from Nature and further away from the Dao.

But in any case, the fact that Master Xunzi ranks "reverting to emotion to return to the Great Unity" as one of the tiers of Rites (albeit the lowest) demonstrates his full recognition of the value of "emotion" (qing). In his system, "emotion" is the foundation of Rites—without genuine emotion, even the most exquisite form is worthless.

Section 8 The Sage’s Ultimate Attainment: Implicit Grasping of Order

"If he resides perfectly in the middle, moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly, he is a Sage (sheng ren)." (Yu zhi qi zhong yan, fang huang zhou xie, qu de qi ci xu, shi sheng ren ye.)

This sentence describes the realm of the Sage—the highest practitioner of Rites.

"Resides perfectly in the middle" (Yu zhi qi zhong yan)—Within the range of Rites’ flourishing, reduction, and middle course.

"Moving deftly" (Fang huang)—Unhurried and at ease; graceful and radiant. "Deftly" (huang) also means shining brightly. Combined, fang huang describes a state of ease and openness.

"Grasping the order implicitly" (Qu de qi ci xu)—"Implicitly" (qu) refers to every bend or detail; "grasping the order" (de qi ci xu) means precisely grasping the sequence. Combined, this describes the Sage’s mastery over every detail of Rites—nothing is too much or too little, neither too early nor too late, neither flourishing nor reduced, just right.

"He is a Sage" (Shi sheng ren ye)—This is the Sage.

What is the distinction between the Sage and the superior man$1 The superior man can "achieve the utmost flourishing above, exhaust the utmost reduction below, and reside in the middle"—this is already remarkable, but his application might still involve some intentional effort. The Sage goes further—he not only skillfully applies Rites across flourishing, reduction, and the middle course, but he achieves "grasping the order implicitly" (qu de qi ci xu)—every detail is perfectly appropriate, naturally so, without conscious effort.

This corresponds to Confucius’s state of "following what my heart desired without overstepping what was right" at seventy—the complete embodiment of "grasping the order implicitly" in personal life. In this realm, Rites cease to be external norms and become internal consciousness—every word and action of the Sage naturally conforms to Rites, effortlessly, like breathing.

This realm is precious because it resolves the eternal tension between "culture" (wen) and "substance" (zhi)—for the Sage, wen is zhi, and zhi is wen; the two are completely unified. The Sage’s expression of emotion is itself the most perfect form, and the most perfect form inherently carries the most genuine emotion.

Section 9 Differentiating Men by Rites: Gentleman vs. Commoner

"If one possesses this ability, he is a gentleman (shi junzi); if outside this, he is a commoner (min)." (Ren you shi, shi junzi ye; wai shi, min ye.)

"Possesses this" (you shi)—Possesses the cultivation and ability regarding Rites described above. This person is a shi or junzi (gentleman/superior man).

"Outside this" (wai shi)—Outside this range, meaning lacking this cultivation and ability. This person is a "commoner" (min).

The distinction here between shi junzi and min is not one of hereditary rank (it does not mean nobles are gentlemen and commoners are the masses) but one of level of cultivation. One who can flexibly employ Rites across flourishing, reduction, and the middle course is a shi junzi; one who cannot achieve this is a min.

This classification based on cultivation level, rather than birth status, is an important tradition in pre-Qin Confucian thought. Confucius said:

"There is no distinction in education." (You jiao wu lei.) (Analects, Zi Jin)

Education is not graded by status—anyone can improve their cultivation through learning. Therefore, the status of shi junzi is not innate but acquired through self-cultivation.

Xunzi, Xiu Shen also states:

"He who loves the law and practices it is a shi. He who holds firm to his will and embodies it is a gentleman (junzi). He who is perfectly clear and inexhaustible is a Sage. If a man has no law, he is agitated and lost; if he has the law but does not grasp its meaning, he is merely diligent; if he follows the law and also grasps its deeper implications, only then is he truly refined."

"Loves the law and practices it" (hao fa er xing)—This is a shi. "Holds firm to his will and embodies it" (du zhi er ti)—This is a junzi. "Perfectly clear and inexhaustible" (qi ming er bu jie)—This is a Sage. This passage clearly distinguishes three levels—shi, junzi, and Sage—based entirely on the level of cultivation, not birth status.

Section 10 The Sage’s Highest Realm: Moving Deftly and Implicitly Grasping Order

"If he resides perfectly in the middle, moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly, he is a Sage." (Yu zhi qi zhong yan, fang huang zhou xie, qu de qi ci xu, shi sheng ren ye.)

This sentence describes the Sage—the ultimate practitioner of Rites—whose realm is reached "in the middle" (yu zhi qi zhong yan).

"Moving deftly" (Fang huang)—Unrushed and elegant; righteous and radiant. "Deftly" (huang) also means shining brightly. Combined, fang huang describes a state of ease and openness.

"Grasping the order implicitly" (Qu de qi ci xu)—"Implicitly" (qu) refers to every bend or detail; "grasping the order" (de qi ci xu) means precisely grasping the sequence. Combined, this describes the Sage’s complete mastery over every detail of Rites—nothing is too much or too little, neither too early nor too late, neither flourishing nor reduced, just right.

This corresponds to Confucius’s state of "following what my heart desired without overstepping what was right" at seventy—the complete embodiment of "grasping the order implicitly" in personal life. In this realm, Rites cease to be external norms and become internal consciousness—every word and action of the Sage naturally conforms to Rites, effortlessly, like breathing.

This realm is precious because it resolves the eternal tension between "culture" (wen) and "substance" (zhi)—for the Sage, wen is zhi, and zhi is wen; the two are completely unified. The Sage’s expression of emotion is itself the most perfect form, and the most perfect form inherently carries the most genuine emotion.

This realm is precisely what Master Xunzi seeks. It is the perfection of "joyful calibration" (yue jiao), where freedom and order merge seamlessly.