An Inquiry into the Core of Xunzi's 'On Rites': The Origin of Rites, Textual-Structural Logic, and the Way of Elevation and Reduction

Chapter 9 Deeper Tracing: Sacrifice in Ancient Folklore and the Primordial Ritual

Section 1 The Beginning of Sacrifice and the Germination of Rites

From the perspective of ancient mythology and folklore, the most primordial form of Rites was likely sacrifice—human veneration and supplication to the spirits of Heaven, Earth, and the ancestors.

Li Ji: Li Yun states:

"The beginning of Rites originated in food and drink. When roasting millet and chopping up pigs, using stained vessels and drinking with cupped hands, beating drums with grass bundles—even this seemed sufficient to convey their reverence to the spirits of Heaven and Earth."

"Begins in food and drink" (Shi yu yin shi)—The earliest Rites started with food and drink—offering food and drink to Heaven and Earth and ancestral spirits—using the simplest means to express reverence to the divine.

Why sacrifice$7 Because "humans are born with desires"—humans desire food, security, and survival. In antiquity, humans were extremely vulnerable to the forces of Nature—floods, droughts, fierce beasts, and disease could take human lives at any moment. Humans could not guarantee survival by their own power, so they had to appeal for the protection of the spirits of Heaven and Earth. The ritualization of this act of appeal is the origin of sacrificial Rites.

In the context of ancient sacrifice, Master Xunzi’s "desire is present but unsatisfied, they cannot help but seek" takes on a more concrete meaning: Human desire for survival (yu) cannot be fully satisfied by oneself (bu de), thus one must appeal to supernatural powers (bu neng wu qiu). This appeal required a certain method and norm—the earliest "measure and boundary"—when to sacrifice, what to use, and in what manner.

The sacrifices recorded in the Shang Shu, Yao Dian by Emperor Yao exhibit clear "measure and boundary":

"In the second month of the year, he made an eastern tour of inspection, proceeding to Mount Tai, where he performed the Chai sacrifice. He observed the rites to the mountains and rivers. Then he paid his respects to the Eastern Queen. He harmonized the months, days, and the standard measures, weights, and lengths."

When Emperor Yao took the throne, he first sacrificed to the High God ("observed the rites to the mountains and rivers"), then to the Six Ancestors, then to the mountain and river spirits, and finally to all the spirits. This series of sacrifices, while far more complex than the primitive era, was relatively simple compared to later elaborate ceremonies—it was in the transition phase from "simplicity" (zhuo) to "culture" (wen).

Section 2 Spirits of Heaven and Earth and the Sacredness of Rites

In ancient belief, Rites were not only human order but also the sacred laws between Heaven and Earth. The sacredness of Rites derived from human reverence for the spirits of Heaven and Earth.

The Guo Yu, Chu Yu Xia records a crucial dialogue—Guan Shefu discusses the "Severing of Earth and Heaven" (Jue Di Tian Tong):

"In ancient times, the people and the spirits did not mix. When the people’s spirits were not distracted, and they could maintain sincerity and correctness... the enlightened spirits would descend; among men, males were called Xie (shamans), and females Wu (sorceresses). ... When Shao Hao declined, the Nine Li confused virtue, and people and spirits mixed indiscriminately, unable to be distinguished. Everyone performed sacrifices, every household had its shaman, without a central authority. The people were depleted of proper offerings and did not know their blessings. Offerings were without measure, and people and spirits shared the same place. People profaned the sacred oaths, lacking solemn authority. When the spirits were too familiar with men, they did not reject their actions. Auspicious births did not descend, and there was nothing to offer; disasters repeatedly arrived, and the vital force was not exhausted. Zhuanxu received this mandate, and ordered the Southern Chief (Zhong) to oversee Heaven to be in charge of the spirits, and ordered the Fire Chief (Li) to oversee Earth to be in charge of the people, commanding them to return to the former constants, without trespassing upon each other’s domain. This is called the severing of Earth and Heaven."

The core meaning of "Severing of Earth and Heaven" is: the authority to communicate with spirits was concentrated in specialized shamans, rather than allowing everyone to sacrifice arbitrarily. This is the earliest practice of "measure and boundary" in the religious sphere—who was qualified to sacrifice and how to sacrifice were clearly stipulated.

What was the consequence of "Offerings were without measure" (Zheng xiang wu du)$8 "Disasters repeatedly arrived, and the vital force was not exhausted" (Huo zai jian zhen, mo jin qi qi)—Calamities came one after another, and the vital force was never fully expended. This logic is entirely consistent with Xunzi’s "when seeking lacks measure and boundary, contention cannot be avoided; contention leads to chaos, and chaos leads to destitution"—only Xunzi argues this from the social level, whereas the "Severing of Earth and Heaven" narrative argues it from the religious level.

This record reveals the source of the sacredness of Rites: Rites were initially the laws of communication between humans and the spirits of Heaven and Earth. Because Rites involved the divine realm, they possessed supreme sacredness—to violate Rites was to offend Heaven and Earth, with dire consequences.

Although Master Xunzi shows a tendency toward "demystification" in his Tian Lun (Heaven does not exist for Yao, nor perish for Jie), he still respects the sacredness of Rites. In Li Lun, he details the various observances of sacrificial rites and emphasizes that the purpose of sacrifice is "repaying the source and returning to the beginning"—repaying the grace of Heaven, Earth, and ancestors. This spirit of "repaying the source" originates from the ancient reverence for the spirits of Heaven and Earth.

Section 3 The Prototype of Order: From Heaven/Earth to the Human Realm

In ancient mythology, there was a natural order between Heaven and Earth—the sun and moon had their paths of movement, the four seasons had their rhythm of succession, and all things had their laws of growth. This natural order was the prototype for the ritualistic order in the human world.

The Shang Shu, Yao Dian records Emperor Yao "respectfully transmitting the correct times" (jing shou ren shi)—respectfully informing the people of the celestial times:

"He then commanded Xi and He, to diligently observe the vast Heaven, to record the movements of the sun, moon, and stars, and respectfully transmit the times to the people. He assigned Xi Zhong to the eastern region, called Yang Valley. Respectfully attending the rising sun, he harmonized the eastern labors... At midday, the star Niao (The Bird) marked mid-spring. The people began to clear the fields, and birds and beasts multiplied... He assigned Xi Shu to the southern region... At noon, the star Huo (Fire) marked midsummer. The people followed suit, and birds and beasts shed their winter coats... He assigned He Zhong to the western region, called Mei Valley. Respectfully seeing the sun set, he harmonized the western harvest... At midnight, the star Xu (The Empty) marked mid-autumn. The people were at ease, and birds and beasts grew fine fur... He assigned He Shu to the northern region, called You Du. He arranged the setting sun in the north... The shortest day marked midwinter. The people sheltered, and birds and beasts grew thick fur."

Emperor Yao commanded the Xi and He clans to manage the astronomy and agricultural timing of the four regions (East, South, West, North) respectively. Each region had clear astronomical markers (midday, longest day, midnight, shortest day), specific constellations (Bird, Fire, Empty, Pleiades), and definite seasonal characteristics (mid-spring, midsummer, mid-autumn, midwinter)—everything was perfectly ordered.

This astronomical and calendrical order was the prototype for human ritual order. Heaven has the laws governing the movement of the sun, moon, and stars; the human world has the behavioral norms of Rites and Righteousness. The order of Heaven is natural—it requires no human intervention; the order of the human world is artificial—it requires "the Former Kings to establish Rites and Righteousness to differentiate among them." But the artificial order takes the natural order as its model—"emulating the clarity of Heaven, adapting to the nature of Earth."

The I Ching, Xi Ci Zhuan states:

"In ancient times, when the lord Bao Xi ruled the world, he looked up to observe the celestial patterns, and looked down to observe the laws of Earth. He observed the markings of birds and beasts and the suitability of the Earth. He took things near him as examples and things far from him as models. From this, he first created the Eight Trigrams, to connect with the virtue of the spirits and to classify the emotions of the myriad things."

Lord Fuxi observed the patterns of Heaven and Earth, observed the markings of birds and beasts, and took things near and far as models, thereby creating the Eight Trigrams—to connect with the virtue of the spirits and classify the emotions of the myriad things. The Eight Trigrams can be seen as the most primitive form of "measure and boundary"—they divide Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things into eight basic types, each with its specific nature and law. This spirit of classification and norm-setting is the source of the spirit of Rites.

Section 4 Rites in Daily Folk Rituals: The Practical Application of Order

Besides the grand sacrificial Rites, the daily folk activities of antiquity also contained rich concepts of Rites.

There are Rites for eating and drinking—what food different people eat, what vessels to use, and in what order. Li Ji: Qu Li Shang states:

"When eating together, do not eat until full; when sharing food, do not wet your hand to take more."

These seemingly trivial rules are actually norms regulating human eating behavior—ensuring "desires do not exhaust material things" (not wasting due to greed) and "material things are not subjugated by desires" (not compromising hygiene due to greed).

There are Rites for meeting—how to bow, how to address others, how to be seated. The Analects, Xiang Dang chapter details Confucius's conduct in different settings:

"When among villagers, Confucius was respectful and reserved, as if unable to speak. When in the ancestral temple or the court, he spoke fluently, yet with utmost caution."

In the village, Confucius was humble and gentle, seemingly taciturn; in the ancestral temple and the court, he spoke clearly, but with extreme caution. Different occasions require different modes of conduct—this is the application of "using flourishing and reduction as the key principle" (yi long sha wei yao) in daily life.

There are Rites for marriage and mourning—how to marry and how to mourn. The Book of Songs contains many descriptions of marriage and mourning rites. For example, Book of Songs, Zhou Nan, Tao Yao:

"The peach tree is young and tender, its blossoms brilliant red. This young woman is going to her husband, to suit his household."

This wedding song underlies an entire set of marriage ceremonies—proposing marriage, inquiring about the name, presenting the auspicious signs, sending gifts, setting the date, and personally fetching the bride—each step has its specific regulation and meaning.

These Rites in daily customs are the concrete expression of Master Xunzi’s "nurturing human desires and satisfying human demands." Humans desire food and drink; the Rites of eating allow them to satisfy this desire in a civilized and orderly manner. Humans desire marriage; the Rites of marriage allow them to realize this wish in a solemn and harmonious manner. Rites are not a denial of desire but the civilization of desire.