An Inquiry into the Core of Xunzi's 'On Rites': The Origin of Rites, Textual-Structural Logic, and the Way of Elevation and Reduction

Chapter 10 Deep Inquiry: Several Core Philosophical Implications of Rites

Section 1 The Legitimacy of Desire

Reading these four passages from Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, the first fundamental philosophical problem we encounter is: Does desire possess legitimacy$9

In Master Xunzi’s system, the answer is clear: Desire possesses legitimacy. "Humans are born with desires" is an undeniable fact. The task of Rites is not to eliminate desire but "to nurture human desires and satisfy human demands"—to guide and fulfill them.

However, this stance faces challenges from different directions:

The challenge from Daoism: Desire is the source of suffering. Laozi states: "There is no greater crime than to desire to have more than one deserves; there is no greater misfortune than not knowing when one has had enough." (Laozi, Chapter 46). If desire is the source of chaos, why "nurture" it rather than "extinguish" it$10

The challenge from Mohism: Master Mozi advocates "restraining expenditure" (jie yong) and "opposing Music" (fei yue)—drastically saving expenses and opposing music for entertainment. Although this position does not completely deny desire, it compresses the satisfaction of desire to a bare minimum. Master Xunzi specifically criticizes the Mohist stance of "opposing Music" in the Yue Lun (Discourse on Music):

"Thus, Music is joy (le). The superior man finds joy in his Dao; the lesser man finds joy in his desires. If one regulates desires with the Dao, there is joy without disorder; if one forgets the Dao through desire, there is confusion without joy. Thus, Music is the means by which joy is guided."

Music (Yue) is joy (Le). The superior man finds joy in the Dao, while the lesser man finds joy in desire. If one regulates desire with the Dao, there is joy without disorder; if one forgets the Dao through desire, there is confusion without joy. Therefore, the function of Music is to guide joy—"regulating desires with the Dao" (yi Dao zhi yu)—rather than eliminating joy ("opposing Music").

This argument by Master Xunzi clearly demonstrates his position on the legitimacy of desire: Desire itself is legitimate, and joy itself is legitimate. The issue is not the existence of desire or joy, but how to guide desire and how to regulate joy—"regulating desires with the Dao" (yi Dao zhi yu)—this is the function of Rites.

On a deeper philosophical level, Xunzi’s affirmation of the legitimacy of desire implies an affirmation of the sensibility of human existence (senses, emotion, desire). Man is not only a rational being but also a sentient one—flesh and blood, with emotions and desires. The task of Rites is not to suppress human sensibility but to incorporate human sensibility into a rational order—so that it is both satisfied and prevented from overflowing.

This affirmation of the legitimacy of the sentient existence is an important tradition in pre-Qin Confucianism. The Book of Songs itself is an expression of emotion—"The Shi Odes are where the Zhi (intentions/aims) go; when in the heart, they are intentions; when expressed in words, they are Odes" (a quote from the later Mao Shi Xu, but the idea predates the Qin). Confucius's evaluation of the Book of Songs as "without depravity" (si wu xie) suggests that he believed the various emotions expressed in the Odes (including love, homesickness, resentment) were legitimate and not depraved.

Section 2 The Eternal Tension between Culture (Wen) and Substance (Zhi)

The second core philosophical problem in Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites is the eternal tension between "culture" (wen) and "substance" (zhi) (or "emotion" (qing) and "culture" (wen)).

Throughout pre-Qin intellectual history, the relationship between wen and zhi has been a central issue. Confucius proposed the ideal of "well-blended culture and substance" (wen zhi bin bin); Master Xunzi further deepened this ideal with "emotion and culture fully realized" (qing wen ju jin). But the ideal remains the ideal—in reality, the tension between wen and zhi always exists.

Why is this tension "eternal"$11 Because wen and zhi separately represent two irreducible dimensions of human existence—naturalness (zhi) and sociality (wen). Man is both a natural being (with natural desires and emotions) and a social being (with social roles and norms). Between these two dimensions, there will always be some degree of tension—the spontaneous impulse of nature and the normative requirements of society can never be perfectly aligned.

Xunzi’s theory of Rites can be seen as a response to this eternal tension. He does not attempt to eliminate this tension (which is impossible) but attempts to manage and regulate it—by flexibly employing flourishing (long), reduction (sha), and the middle course (zhong liu), the tension is kept within controllable limits. In solemn occasions, "culture" dominates (elaborate culture/principle, restrained emotion/utility); in simple occasions, "emotion" dominates (sparse culture/principle, abundant emotion/utility); in general occasions, the two operate concurrently (culture/principle and emotion/utility serve as interior/exterior, manifestation/obscurity, operating concurrently and intermingled).

This flexible strategy is more practical and effective than any one-sided position (such as Daoist "abandoning culture for substance" or Legalist "using punishment instead of Rites").

Section 3 The Highest Realm of the Sage: Implicitly Grasping Order

Master Xunzi’s description of the Sage's realm—"moving deftly and grasping the order implicitly" (fang huang zhou xie, qu de qi ci xu)—is the highest attainment in the practice of Rites, and the highest realm of self-cultivation.

The core characteristic of this realm is "implicitly grasping the order" (qu de qi ci xu)—every detail is just right. This implies:

First, the Sage has a thorough understanding of all levels of Rites (flourishing, reduction, middle course)—he not only knows when to flourish, when to reduce, and when to remain in the middle, but also precisely how much to flourish, how much to reduce, and where to settle in the middle.

Second, the Sage can flexibly respond to all situations in practicing Rites—he does not mechanically execute rules but makes appropriate judgments and actions based on the specific context. This flexibility is not arbitrariness—it is built upon a profound understanding of the principles of Rites.

Third, the Sage’s practice of Rites is natural and spontaneous—it requires no deliberate thought or effort; everything conforms to Rites naturally, like an instinct. This is the state of "following what my heart desired without overstepping what was right."

This realm is precious because it resolves the tension between "culture" (wen) and "substance" (zhi)—for the Sage, wen is zhi, and zhi is wen; the two are completely unified. The Sage’s expression of emotion is itself the most perfect form, and the most perfect form inherently carries the most genuine emotion.

Master Kong's lifelong pursuit was likely this very realm. He began with "setting his heart on learning at fifteen," went through "standing firm at thirty," "no doubts at forty," "knowing the Mandate of Heaven at fifty," and "his ear attuned at sixty," finally reaching "following what my heart desired without overstepping what was right" at seventy—this is the complete embodiment of "implicitly grasping the order" in personal life.

Section 4 The Dynamism and Adaptability of Rites

Reading through these four passages in Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, one theme that runs throughout is: Rites are dynamic, not static.

"The two support each other and grow"—Desire and material things grow together. "Begins with simplicity, is completed in culture, and ends in joyful calibration"—Rites have a process of arising and developing. "Flourishing, reduction, middle course"—Rites have different forms depending on the situation. "Steps, gallops, swift flights"—The practice of Rites has different rhythms and intensities.

This dynamism implies that Rites are not a set of rigid dogmas but a living organism—capable of adapting to different situations, different eras, and different groups of people.

Master Kong’s discussion of "addition and subtraction" (sun yi) in Rites precisely emphasizes this adaptability:

"The Yin Shang inherited the Rites of the Xia, the additions and subtractions can be known; the Zhou inherited the Rites of the Yin, the additions and subtractions can be known."

Rites undergo constant "addition and subtraction" throughout history to adapt to new needs. But the unchanging core of this "addition and subtraction" is "honoring the root" (respecting the fundamental spirit). When the fundamental spirit remains unchanged, the specific forms can be adjusted according to the times—this is the unity of dynamism and stability in Rites.

Master Xunzi criticizes those who are rigidly conservative and fail to adapt in the Fei Shi Er Zi (Against the Twelve Masters) chapter:

"They do not know the method of establishing a state and governing the world, favoring great frugality and neglecting differentiation of grades."

This criticism targets those who do not understand the dynamism and adaptability of Rites.

Section 5 The Great Unity as Ultimate Pursuit: Harmonious Wholeness Beyond Opposition

Master Xunzi mentions the "Great Unity" (Da Yi) twice—"When the two combine to form culture, they return to the Great Unity" and "the lowest degree reverts to emotion to return to the Great Unity." This "Great Unity" can be considered the ultimate pursuit in Master Xunzi’s theory of Rites.

The "Great Unity" transcends all oppositions—the opposition between root and utility, emotion and culture, flourishing and reduction, individual and society, artifice and nature. In the state of "Great Unity," all these oppositions are resolved, and everything returns to harmony.

This pursuit of "harmonious wholeness beyond opposition" is not only Xunzi’s personal pursuit but also a common pursuit throughout pre-Qin thought. Confucianism idealizes the "Doctrine of the Mean" ("When the Mean and Harmony are carried to their utmost extent, Heaven and Earth assume their correct positions, and the myriad things are nourished"); Daoism seeks refuge in the "Dao" ("The Dao produced One; One produced Two; Two produced Three; Three produced the myriad things"); the I Ching regards the "Taiji" (Supreme Ultimate) as the root ("The Yi has the Taiji; this produced the Two Primes"). These different expressions all point in the same direction—transcending opposition and returning to unity.

Master Xunzi’s "Great Unity" is the concrete manifestation of this common pursuit in the realm of ritual theory. It tells us: The highest state of Rites is not a specific form (whether flourishing or reduction) but a state of holistic harmony that transcends all specific forms—in this harmony, all opposition is resolved, all tension is reconciled, and man merges with Heaven and Earth.