An Inquiry into the Core of Xunzi's 'On Rites': The Origin of Rites, Textual-Structural Logic, and the Way of Elevation and Reduction

Section 1 The Legitimacy of Desire

Reading these four passages from Master Xunzi’s Discourse on Rites, the first fundamental philosophical problem we encounter is: Does desire possess legitimacy$9

In Master Xunzi’s system, the answer is clear: Desire possesses legitimacy. "Humans are born with desires" is an undeniable fact. The task of Rites is not to eliminate desire but "to nurture human desires and satisfy human demands"—to guide and fulfill them.

However, this stance faces challenges from different directions:

The challenge from Daoism: Desire is the source of suffering. Laozi states: "There is no greater crime than to desire to have more than one deserves; there is no greater misfortune than not knowing when one has had enough." (Laozi, Chapter 46). If desire is the source of chaos, why "nurture" it rather than "extinguish" it$10

The challenge from Mohism: Master Mozi advocates "restraining expenditure" (jie yong) and "opposing Music" (fei yue)—drastically saving expenses and opposing music for entertainment. Although this position does not completely deny desire, it compresses the satisfaction of desire to a bare minimum. Master Xunzi specifically criticizes the Mohist stance of "opposing Music" in the Yue Lun (Discourse on Music):

"Thus, Music is joy (le). The superior man finds joy in his Dao; the lesser man finds joy in his desires. If one regulates desires with the Dao, there is joy without disorder; if one forgets the Dao through desire, there is confusion without joy. Thus, Music is the means by which joy is guided."

Music (Yue) is joy (Le). The superior man finds joy in the Dao, while the lesser man finds joy in desire. If one regulates desire with the Dao, there is joy without disorder; if one forgets the Dao through desire, there is confusion without joy. Therefore, the function of Music is to guide joy—"regulating desires with the Dao" (yi Dao zhi yu)—rather than eliminating joy ("opposing Music").

This argument by Master Xunzi clearly demonstrates his position on the legitimacy of desire: Desire itself is legitimate, and joy itself is legitimate. The issue is not the existence of desire or joy, but how to guide desire and how to regulate joy—"regulating desires with the Dao" (yi Dao zhi yu)—this is the function of Rites.

On a deeper philosophical level, Xunzi’s affirmation of the legitimacy of desire implies an affirmation of the sensibility of human existence (senses, emotion, desire). Man is not only a rational being but also a sentient one—flesh and blood, with emotions and desires. The task of Rites is not to suppress human sensibility but to incorporate human sensibility into a rational order—so that it is both satisfied and prevented from overflowing.

This affirmation of the legitimacy of the sentient existence is an important tradition in pre-Qin Confucianism. The Book of Songs itself is an expression of emotion—"The Shi Odes are where the Zhi (intentions/aims) go; when in the heart, they are intentions; when expressed in words, they are Odes" (a quote from the later Mao Shi Xu, but the idea predates the Qin). Confucius's evaluation of the Book of Songs as "without depravity" (si wu xie) suggests that he believed the various emotions expressed in the Odes (including love, homesickness, resentment) were legitimate and not depraved.