The Image of Music and Sound in Xunzi's 'On Music': A Study of Character, Cosmos, and the Cultivation of Rites and Music

Chapter One: Introduction: The Imagery of Music—How Sound and Music Possess "Imagery"

Section 1: The Denotation of "Xiàng" (象): The Original Context of the "Xiàng" Concept in the Pre-Qin Period

Anyone studying the pre-Qin classics, encountering a character that demands prior semantic clarification, must place the character xiàng ($\text{象}$) at the forefront. Modern usage of xiàng often defaults to "image," "symbol," or "trope," yet these meanings are all products of later semantic differentiation and do not represent the original denotation of xiàng in the pre-Qin era. To understand the four characters "The Imagery of Sound and Music" ($\text{shēng yuè zhī xiàng}$), we must first trace the initial meaning of xiàng to avoid imposing later interpretations onto the ancient text.

The most ancient meaning of xiàng is found in the Oracle Bone script. In the Oracle Bone script, the character xiàng is the depiction of the actual elephant—long trunk, large ears, four legs—a pictogram derived from a concrete object. Although the Shuowen Jiezi ($\text{Shuōwén Jiězì}$) is a Han dynasty work, its character explanations often retain vestiges of ancient usage. Xu Shen states in his definition of xiàng: "Long trunk and tusks, the great beast of Southern Yue." This is the primary meaning of xiàng: the concrete elephant. But how did xiàng, the name of a specific animal, evolve into such a crucial category in pre-Qin philosophy$3

The key to this evolution lies in the meaning of "taking as a model" ($\text{qǔ fǎ}$) inherent in xiàng. Due to its immense size and distinctive form, the elephant left a profound impression on the ancients, leading to the extension of xiàng to mean "form" or "appearance." The Book of Documents ($\text{Shàng Shū}$), in the chapter "Command to Yue" ($\text{Shuō Mìng}$), records: "Studying the ancient teachings one gains attainment; affairs not modeled on antiquity cannot last for eternity; it is not merely what is heard in discourse." Furthermore, there is the phrase, "Heaven hangs forth its xiàng ($\text{xiàng}$), revealing misfortune and fortune." Here, xiàng is no longer the concrete elephant but rather astronomical phenomena—the visible forms and omens presented by Heaven.

In the Changes of the Elder/Yijing ($\text{Zhōu Yì}$), the Great Treatise ($\text{Xì Cí}$) states:

"The Sage perceives the intricacies of the world, models them according to their likenesses ($\text{xíngróng}$), and indicates their appropriate suitability ($\text{wù yí}$), which is why it is called xiàng."

It also states:

"Thus, there is no imagery ($\text{fǎ xiàng}$) greater than Heaven and Earth, no transformation more extensive than the four seasons, and no clarity hung forth ($\text{xiàn xiàng}$) more illuminating than the sun and moon."

"When established in Heaven, they become xiàng ($\text{chéng xiàng}$); when formed on Earth, they become xíng ($\text{chéng xíng}$); the transformations are thereby revealed."

These passages capture the essence of pre-Qin discussions on xiàng. Xiàng is not merely external appearance, nor is it purely subjective conception; it is the collective term for the naturally presented forms, laws, and omens of Heaven and Earth and the myriad things. When the Sage "observes the xiàng" ($\text{guān xiàng}$), he perceives the inner principle through the visible forms of all things. Xiàng serves as the bridge connecting the inner and outer, form and spirit, phenomenon and essence.

The trigrams ($\text{guà xiàng}$) and the lines ($\text{yáo xiàng}$) of the Yijing use limited symbols (Yin and Yang lines) to simulate the infinite transformations of the myriad things. The establishment of the eight trigrams—Qian for Heaven, Kun for Earth, Zhen for Thunder, Xun for Wind, Kan for Water, Li for Fire, Gen for Mountain, Dui for Lake—are all xiàng. This xiàng is neither an abstract concept nor a concrete object; it is an "analogous imagery" ($\text{lèi xiàng}$) situated between the two, using the characteristic of one thing to represent the common nature of a class of things.

So, when Master Xunzi speaks of "The Imagery of Sound and Music" ($\text{shēng yuè zhī xiàng}$), how should this xiàng be understood$4

The xiàng in "The Imagery of Sound and Music" continues the tradition of "taking imagery" ($\text{qǔ xiàng}$) established since the Yijing. Master Xunzi is not referring to the "shape" of sound and music—sound is formless and invisible—nor is he referring to "symbolism"—that is a later extension. The xiàng Master Xunzi speaks of refers to the qualities, the dispositions, and the effects presented by sound and music; that is, the intrinsic characteristics conveyed through acoustic sound that can be perceived, understood, and internalized. Here, xiàng is the "virtue" ($\text{dé}$), the "nature" ($\text{xìng}$), or the "character" ($\text{gé}$) of sound and music, expressed in the most concise language to delineate the character presented by various instruments and musical performances.

Why use the term xiàng instead of directly saying "The Nature of Sound and Music" or "The Virtue of Sound and Music"$5 This question is highly significant. "Nature" ($\text{xìng}$) and "Virtue" ($\text{dé}$) emphasize the intrinsic essence of things, whereas xiàng encompasses both the inner and the outer—it is the external manifestation of an inner quality, and simultaneously, the inner quality hinted at by the external form. The wonder of sound and music lies precisely in its presentation of intrinsic character through external acoustics, conveying inaudible meaning through audible sound. The use of xiàng precisely captures the unique nature of sound and music as "conveying meaning through sound" and "indicating virtue through resonance."

Furthermore, the use of xiàng implies a cosmological dimension. The text immediately follows by stating, "the drum resembles Heaven, the bell resembles Earth, the chime stone resembles Water," establishing a grand system where the lineage of musical instruments corresponds to the cosmological diagram of Heaven and Earth. This is no accident. In pre-Qin thought, xiàng was the intermediary connecting human affairs with the Dao of Heaven. The Great Treatise ($\text{Xì Cí}$), Second Part, states:

"In antiquity, when the Lord of the Five Classics ($\text{Bāo Xī}$ Fuxi) reigned over the world, he looked upward to observe the xiàng in Heaven, and looked downward to observe the models ($\text{fǎ}$) on Earth. He observed the patterns of birds and beasts and the suitability of the Earth. He took lessons from his own person and drew far from external things. Thus he first established the Eight Trigrams, to communicate the virtue of the spiritual light ($\text{shén míng zhī dé}$) and to correspond to the feelings ($\text{qíng}$) of the myriad things."

The observation of xiàng by Fuxi served as a medium to communicate the "virtue of the spiritual light" and the "feelings of the myriad things." Master Xunzi’s title, "The Imagery of Sound and Music," similarly uses the xiàng of sound and music as a medium to bridge the acoustics of instruments with the Great Dao of Heaven and Earth. This line of reasoning permeates the entire passage.

Section 2: Why "Sound and Music" ($\text{Shēng Yuè}$) is Distinguished from "Sound" ($\text{Shēng}$) and "Music" ($\text{Yuè}$) Alone

In pre-Qin texts discussing music, the characters shēng ($\text{shēng}$, sound), yīn ($\text{yīn}$, tone/pitch), and yuè ($\text{yuè}$, music/harmony) are frequently used. Here, Master Xunzi links shēng and yuè together as "Sound and Music" ($\text{shēng yuè}$), rather than using the common compound yīnyuè ($\text{yīnyuè}$, music) or speaking of yuè alone. Is there a distinction here$6

The Book of Rites ($\text{Lǐ Jì}$), in the chapter "Record of Music" ($\text{Yuè Jì}$), offers a crucial distinction:

"The origin of all sound ($\text{shēng}$) comes from the human heart. The stirring of the human heart is caused by external things. Moved by external things, it manifests in sound ($\text{shēng}$). Sounds correspond, thus producing changes ($\text{biàn}$). When changes form a pattern ($\text{fāng}$), it is called tone ($\text{yīn}$). When tones are arranged together and enjoyed ($\text{lè}$), along with shields, feathers, and plumes, it is called music ($\text{yuè}$)."

This passage establishes a strict hierarchical distinction among shēng, yīn, and yuè:

• Sound ($\text{Shēng}$): The primal acoustic emission resulting from the heart being moved by external things. Unorganized, unsystematized. Any natural noise or human cry can be called shēng.
• Tone ($\text{Yīn}$): Sound that has undergone transformation and organization into a systematic structure; it "forms a pattern" ($\text{biàn chéng fāng}$) by adopting a certain format or mode. The system of the five notes (palace, horn, angle, beam, wing) and the twelve pitches falls into the category of yīn.
• Music ($\text{Yuè}$): Tones organized into a complete artistic presentation, accompanied by ritual instruments and dance (the gān qī yǔ máo), forming an integrated performance.

If this is the case, why does Master Xunzi connect shēng and yuè into "Sound and Music" ($\text{shēng yuè}$)$7

A careful examination of the original text shows that "The Imagery of Sound and Music" covers: drum, bell, chime stone, yú, shēng, xiāo, guǎn, yuè, xūn, chí, sè, qín—these are all instruments, belonging to the category of yīn or yuè. It also includes song ($\text{gē}$), which is human vocal music, situated between shēng and yīn; and dance ($\text{wǔ}$), which is the highest form of yuè, involving bodily action. By using the combined term "Sound and Music" ($\text{shēng yuè}$), Xunzi encompasses all content discussed: shēng emphasizes the acoustic aspect (including instrumental sound and song), while yuè emphasizes the comprehensive artistic form (including dance).

This is not an arbitrary collocation but a precise generalization. Xunzi’s discussion touches upon the qualitative characteristics of various instrumental sounds (the level of shēng), as well as the overall significance of musical performance and dance (the level of yuè); thus, the combined term $\text{shēng yuè}$ is the most suitable.

Why not use the character yīn ($\text{yīn}$)$8 In the pre-Qin context, yīn tended to focus on already organized, systematic acoustic structures—such as the five notes and twelve pitches—a relatively technical concept. Xunzi’s discussion here is not about the technicalities of pitch systems, but about the disposition and aura ($\text{qì xiàng}$) of sound and music. Therefore, using shēng instead of yīn aligns better with the meaning of xiàng.

Moreover, the entire purpose of Xunzi: On Music is to argue for the social function and educational value of music, not to discuss musical technology. Master Xunzi is not concerned with how the five notes interact or how the twelve pitches cycle through keys; he is concerned with how the overall character presented by sound and music corresponds to the Dao of Heaven and Earth and relates to human affairs. Titling the section "The Imagery of Sound and Music" perfectly serves this purpose.

Section 3: The Position of On Music within Master Xunzi's Philosophical System

Master Xunzi's philosophy is centered on "Ritual" ($\text{Lǐ}$), based on "Group" ($\text{Qún}$), and utilizes "Transforming Nature and Cultivating Artifice" ($\text{huà xìng qǐ wěi}$) as its method. To grasp the deeper meaning of the "Imagery of Sound and Music" passage, one must first clarify the position of On Music within Xunzi’s overall thought.

Master Xunzi argues for the theory that "Human Nature is Evil" ($\text{xìng è}$). The chapter On Human Nature states:

"The nature of man is evil; his goodness is the result of artificial effort ($\text{wěi}$). Of man’s nature, that which is good is acquired effort. Now, man’s nature being what it is, if he follows his nature and indulges his disposition, contention and strife will arise, and faithfulness and sincerity will disappear. If he follows his nature and indulges his disposition, they will arise, and propriety and righteousness ($\text{lǐ yì}$) will vanish. If he follows his nature and indulges his disposition, they will arise, and licentious disorder ($\text{yín luàn}$) will emerge, and the patterned distinctions of propriety and righteousness will be lost." (Xunzi, Xing E)

Among human natures, there is "a fondness for fine sound and color" ($\text{hǎo shēng sè}$). If one follows this desire unchecked, "licentious disorder will emerge, and the patterned distinctions of propriety and righteousness will vanish." Does this mean that sound and music—activities that directly satisfy the desires of the ears and eyes—should be rejected in Xunzi’s thought$9

The answer is no. Master Xunzi does not negate sound and music; rather, he insists that they must be guided and restrained by $\text{Lǐ yì}$ ($\text{propriety and righteousness}$), transforming them from means of indulgence into tools for moral cultivation. Xunzi: On Music begins by stating:

"Now, music ($\text{yuè}$) is enjoyment ($\text{lè}$), an essential aspect of human feeling that cannot be avoided. Therefore, man cannot be without enjoyment. If one enjoys, it must manifest in sound and movement, taking form in action and stillness. In man’s way, sound, movement, action, and stillness encompass all transformation of nature and method. Therefore, man cannot be without enjoyment; if one enjoys, it cannot be without form. If form is not guided by the Dao, disorder will surely ensue. The former kings hated disorder, and thus they established the sounds of the Ya and Song ($\text{yǎ sòng}$), employing them to guide the Dao." (Xunzi, Yue Lun)

This passage has several important implications:

First, "Music is enjoyment" ($\text{yuè zhě, lè yě}$)—Music is pleasure, an inevitability of human nature, and cannot be eliminated. This stands in direct opposition to Mozi’s doctrine of "Against Music" ($\text{fēi yuè}$).

Second, "Therefore, man cannot be without enjoyment" ($\text{gù rén bù néng wú yuè}$)—Man must have pleasure, and pleasure must be manifested. This acknowledges the natural demands of human nature.

Third, "If form is not guided by the Dao, disorder will surely ensue" ($\text{xíng ér bù wéi dào, zé bù néng wú luàn}$)—If the manifestation of enjoyment is not guided by the Dao, chaos will inevitably follow. This critiques pure indulgence.

Fourth, "The former kings hated disorder, and thus they established the sounds of the Ya and Song, employing them to guide the Dao" ($\text{xiān wáng èr qí luàn yě, gù zhì yǎ sòng zhī shēng yǐ dào zhī}$)—The former kings created the music of Ya and Song to guide human enjoyment and bring it into accordance with the Dao. This is the civilizing function of sound and music.

Therefore, in Master Xunzi’s thought, sound and music have a dual nature: they are both the satisfaction of natural human desire and a tool for cultivating the human heart. The key lies in using $\text{Lǐ}$ ($\text{Ritual}$) to restrain and guide them. The chapters On Music and On Rites are corresponding sister chapters in Xunzi’s work, together forming his complete theory of "transforming nature by means of rites and music ($\text{yǐ lǐ yuè huà xìng qǐ wěi}$)."

Xunzi: On Music further states:

"Music is that which the Sages delight in, and it can improve the hearts of the people. Its influence on men is deep; it can transform customs and change behavior. Therefore, the former kings guided men with rites and music, and the people achieved harmony and concord." (Xunzi, Yue Lun)

"Its influence on men is deep," and "it can transform customs and change behavior"—the power of sound and music lies in its direct impact on human emotion, subtly transforming human disposition. This is far more profound than mere legal prohibition. Rites regulate human behavior externally; music influences the human heart internally. The two complement each other.

What is the position of the "Imagery of Sound and Music" passage within the entire On Music chapter$10 This passage appears in the latter half of the chapter, coming after Xunzi has discussed the social functions of music and refuted Mozi’s "Against Music" doctrine. He then turns to describing the qualities and cosmological interpretation of the specific content of sound and music—various instruments, song, and dance. This is the crucial juncture where the discussion shifts from the "Use of Music" ($\text{yuè zhī yòng}$) to the "Substance of Music" ($\text{yuè zhī tǐ}$), and it is the most poetic and philosophically profound section of the entire chapter.

Section 4: Research Perspectives and Methodology

This essay will proceed from the following three perspectives:

First, Textual Exegesis. A word-by-word analysis of the original text of "The Imagery of Sound and Music," distinguishing the precise meaning of each instrument’s described quality, and tracing its linguistic and cultural background. This foundational work is indispensable.

Second, the Confucian Perspective. Taking the musical theories of Masters Kong and Xun as the main thread, this essay will explore the inherent ritualistic thought ($\text{lǐ yuè sīxiǎng}$), civilizing concepts ($\text{jiào huà lǐ niàn}$), and theory of social order contained within the "Imagery of Sound and Music." We will extensively cite original passages from the Analects ($\text{Lún Yǔ}$), Mencius ($\text{Mèng Zǐ}$), Xunzi, Book of Rites: Record of Music ($\text{Lǐ Jì: Yuè Jì}$), Rites of Zhou ($\text{Zhōu Lǐ}$), Book of Rituals ($\text{Yí Lǐ}$), and the Zuo Zhuan ($\text{Zuǒ Zhuàn}$) as supporting evidence and resonance.

Third, the Daoist and Ancient Perspectives. Using the musical theories of Masters Laozi and Zhuangzi as reference points, this essay will explore the relationship between sound and music and the Dao. Simultaneously, it will delve into the background of ancient mythology, shamanistic traditions ($\text{wū xí chuán tǒng}$), and sacrificial rituals to trace the original cultural significance of various instruments and explore the primitive connection between sound and music and the spirits of Heaven and Earth. We will reference passages from works such as Classic of Mountains and Seas ($\text{Shān Hǎi Jīng}$), Songs of Chu ($\text{Chǔ Cí}$), Zhuangzi, and Annals of the Warring States ($\text{Lǚ Shì Chūn Qiū}$) for reference.

When citing classical texts, this essay adheres to the principle of "resonance" ($\text{hū yìng}$) rather than "comparison" ($\text{bǐ jiào}$). "Resonance" refers to the intellectual echo, reverberation, and mutual generation of ideas between different texts, rather than a simple comparison of similarities and differences. Although the various masters of the pre-Qin period had distinct aims, they shared a common cultural tradition, and their ideas often possess deep correlations. This essay seeks to uncover these correlations rather than manufacture oppositions.