The Image of Music and Sound in Xunzi's 'On Music': A Study of Character, Cosmos, and the Cultivation of Rites and Music

Chapter Two: A Line-by-Line Interpretation of "The Imagery of Sound and Music": Ten Instruments, Ten Virtues

Section 1: General Overview: The System of Ten Instruments and Ten Virtues

The passage "The Imagery of Sound and Music" uses extremely concise language to describe the qualities of ten instruments (drum, bell, chime stone, yú, shēng, xiāo, guǎn, yuè, xūn, chí, sè, qín) plus song and dance—a total of twelve items—describing the character of each. These twelve items can be grouped as follows:

The arrangement of these twelve items is not arbitrary but follows an inherent logic. Generally speaking, the passage moves from percussion (drum to chime stone), to wind instruments (yú, shēng, xiāo to xūn, chí), to string instruments (sè, qín), concluding with song and dance. This sequence closely corresponds to the pre-Qin classification of the "Eight Tones" ($\text{bā yīn}$).

The "Eight Tones," as recorded in the Rites of Zhou ($\text{Zhōu Lǐ}$), Spring and Autumn Festivals: Grand Master ($\text{Chūn Guān: Dà Shī}$):

"All are spread forth by the Eight Tones: metal, stone, earth, leather, silk, wood, gourd, and bamboo."

Metal refers to bells, stone to chime stones, earth to xūn, leather to drums, silk to qín and sè, wood to the striking block (zhù) and the tiger scraper (yǔ), gourd to shēng and yú, and bamboo to xiāo, guǎn, yuè, and chí. Although Master Xunzi does not strictly follow the order of the Eight Tones, the instruments discussed cover the majority of these material categories.

More noteworthy is that Xunzi’s description of each instrument’s quality is highly precise and inherently suggestive. We will proceed with a line-by-line interpretation.

Section 2: "Drum is Grandly Beautiful" ($\text{gǔ dà lì}$) — The Imagery of the Drum

"The drum is grandly beautiful" ($\text{gǔ dà lì}$)—This states that the drum’s quality is both "grand" ($\text{dà}$) and "beautiful/adhering" ($\text{lì}$).

In the pre-Qin context, "grand" ($\text{dà}$) does not merely refer to physical size but also carries the meaning of sublime, magnificent, and supreme. The Yijing, in the commentary on the Qian Trigram ($\text{Qián guà}$), states:

"How grand is the Origin of Qian! The myriad things begin with it, and it embraces Heaven." ($\text{Dà zāi qián yuán, wàn wù zī shǐ, nǎi tǒng tiān}$.)

This use of "grand" describes the sublimity and vastness of the Dao of Heaven, incomparable to the mere "bigness" of size. Master Laozi also states:

"There is something mysterious and complete, born before Heaven and Earth. Silent! Empty! Standing alone and unchanging, revolving and never wearying. It may be taken as the mother of Heaven and Earth. I do not know its name, so I label it the Dao, and label it the Great ($\text{Dà}$)." (Laozi, Chapter 25)

"I label it the Great" ($\text{qiáng wéi zhī míng yuē dà}$)—The name of the Dao is "Great," using this character to denote that which is unspeakable and indescribable ultimate existence.

The "grandness" ($\text{dà}$) of the drum perfectly aligns with this meaning. The drum’s sound is deep, full, and earth-shaking, resembling the vastness of Heaven or the sublimity of the Dao. The drum is physically the largest of the instruments (large drums could be several feet high, and the jiàn gǔ and fēng gǔ were monumental), and its sound is the loudest and most far-reaching, hence its naming as "grand."

The meaning of "beautiful/adhering" ($\text{lì}$) requires closer scrutiny. Lì in pre-Qin texts has multiple meanings:

First, the meaning of "adhering" or "attaching to." The Yijing, in the commentary on the Li Trigram ($\text{Lí guà}$), states:

"Li ($\text{Lí}$) is adherence ($\text{lì}$). The sun and moon adhere ($\text{lì}$ $\text{yú}$ $\text{tiān}$) to Heaven; the hundred grains and grasses adhere ($\text{lì}$ $\text{yú}$ $\text{tǔ}$) to the Earth. When accumulated brightness adheres ($\text{lì}$) to what is correct, then the world is transformed."

This "adherence" ($\text{lì}$) means attachment or dependence. The sun and moon adhere to Heaven, and the grains and grasses adhere to Earth; the light of civilization adheres to the correct Way, thus transforming the world.

Second, the meaning of "illumination" or "splendor/beauty." The character lì incorporates the radical for "deer" ($\text{lù}$); the antlers of the deer are majestic and splendid, so lì is extended to mean splendor or brilliance.

Third, the meaning of "pairing" or "alignment." Lì shares the meaning of lì ($\text{俪}$), meaning to form a pair or alignment.

The "adherence" ($\text{lì}$) of the drum should incorporate the first two meanings. First, the drum’s sound is grand, adhering like the sun and moon to Heaven, radiating brilliance, making it the crown of all instruments, thus $\text{lì}$ carries the meaning of splendor and beauty. Second, the drum is the "sovereign" of music (as stated below), and all other instruments adhere to the drum’s rhythm to form the structure; the drum sound unifies the whole, and other instruments depend on its tempo, thus $\text{lì}$ carries the meaning of dependence and overall command.

Combining "Grand" ($\text{dà}$) and "Beautiful/Adhering" ($\text{lì}$), the drum's character is one of sublime greatness, splendor, and unifying command. This aligns perfectly with the subsequent statement "the drum resembles Heaven"—the character of Heaven is precisely "grand" ($\text{dà}$) and "adhering/brilliant" ($\text{lì}$): Heaven’s vastness is "grand," and Heaven’s sun, moon, and stars are its "adherence/brilliance."

Why does the drum alone merit this designation of "Grandly Beautiful"$11 Physically, the drum is covered with leather and hollow, struck by a mallet to produce sound. Its sound is deep and resonant, with a large amplitude and low frequency, enabling it to penetrate the sounds of other instruments and be perceived by the listener. In an ensemble, the drum sound forms the fundamental rhythmic skeleton, and all other instruments move according to its rhythm. Just as Heaven is the greatest and most sublime entity for the myriad things, the drum is the greatest and most sublime of instruments.

Culturally, the drum held a unique and esteemed position in ancient society. Drums were used in sacrifices to communicate with the spirits, in warfare to boost morale, in court to issue decrees, and in communal gatherings to harmonize host and guest. The Rites of Zhou, Office of the Earth: Drum Master ($\text{Dì Guān: Gǔ Rén}$), records the system of six drums used for different occasions, demonstrating the drum’s omnipresence in pre-Qin social life:

"They beat the Thunder Drum for divine sacrifices, the Spirit Drum for altars, the Road Drum for ghostly offerings, the Fèng Drum for military affairs, the Ráo Drum for public service, and the Jìn Drum for the metal music."

The six types of drums were used for distinct rituals, showing the drum’s significant political and ritual role. The "Grand Beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$) of the drum is not merely a description of its acoustic quality but a summary of its supreme status within the social functions of music.

We must ask: why does the drum occupy such a lofty position$12 This question requires tracing the origins of the drum in ancient society, which will be detailed in a later chapter.

Section 3: "Bell is Comprehensively Substantial" ($\text{zhōng tǒng shí}$) — The Imagery of the Bell

"The bell is comprehensively substantial" ($\text{zhōng tǒng shí}$)—This states the bell’s quality is both "comprehensive/unifying" ($\text{tǒng}$) and "substantial/solid" ($\text{shí}$).

The meaning of "unifying" ($\text{tǒng}$) is to lead, to synthesize, or to form the main thread. In Xunzi: Against the Twelve Philosophers ($\text{Fēi Shí Èr Zǐ}$), it states:

"Model the former kings, unify the rites and music ($\text{tǒng lǐ yì}$)."

Here, $\text{tǒng}$ means to synthesize or serve as the overall framework. The "unifying" ($\text{tǒng}$) nature of the bell means its sound has the function of synthesizing all other tones. In pre-Qin ensembles, bells (especially the set of bells, $\text{biān zhōng}$) held immense importance, often serving as the pitch standard for the entire ensemble and the marker for the structure of the musical piece. The ancients referred to music led by bells as "metal music" ($\text{jīn zòu}$). The Rites of Zhou, Office of Music: Bell Master ($\text{Chūn Guān: Zhōng Shī}$), records:

"The Bell Master is in charge of the Metal Music. Whenever there is a musical ceremony, the bell and drum sound the Nine Melodies of Summer." ($\text{Jiē bō zhī yǐ bā yīn: jīn, shí, tǔ, gé, sī, mù, páo, zhú}$)

"Metal Music" ($\text{jīn zòu}$) is the collective performance led by the bell, which is the concrete embodiment of the bell's "unifying" ($\text{tǒng}$) function.

The meaning of "substantial" ($\text{shí}$) in the pre-Qin context includes fullness, truthfulness, and fruitfulness, contrasting with "empty" ($\text{xū}$). "Substantial" implies richness of content, not hollowness. The bell’s "substantiality" ($\text{shí}$) refers to the deep, rich quality of its sound. Bells were cast from bronze (copper and tin alloy); their bodies are solid and thick. When struck, the sound is deep and full, lingering long without interruption, possessing a sense of stable gravity.

Combining "Unifying" ($\text{tǒng}$) and "Substantial" ($\text{shí}$), the bell's character is to unify all sounds while maintaining intrinsic richness. This aligns with the subsequent statement "the bell resembles Earth"—the character of Earth is precisely "unifying" ($\text{tǒng}$) and "substantial" ($\text{shí}$): Earth supports all things and serves as the unifying foundation for everything, possessing a heavy, substantial body rather than being empty and light.

The Yijing, in the commentary on the Kun Trigram ($\text{Kūn guà}$), states:

"How excellent is the original nature of Kun, by which the myriad things are nourished and brought to life, conforming to Heaven. Kun is rich and thick in carrying its burden ($\text{hòu zài wù}$), its virtue encompassing boundless expanse. It holds, encompasses, and radiates broadly, so that the classes of things are all prosperous." (Yì Jīng, Kun Gua, Xiàng Zhuàn)

"Kun is rich and thick in carrying its burden" ($\text{Kūn hòu zài wù}$)—Kun’s richness and capacity to bear weight match the bell’s "substantiality" ($\text{shí}$); "the classes of things are all prosperous" ($\text{pǐn wù xián hēng}$)—all things achieve prosperity, matching the bell’s "unifying" ($\text{tǒng}$) function. The bell’s "comprehensive substantiality" ($\text{tǒng shí}$) is precisely a reflection of Kun’s virtue.

Why does the bell merit the designation of "Comprehensively Substantial"$13 Physically, bells are cast from bronze, a solid and heavy material. The sound of the set of bells is solemn and weighty, with a long decay, functioning in the ensemble to set the pitch, stabilize the tempo, and lead the overall structure—serving a unifying role. The ancients cast bells with great care regarding the copper-tin ratio. The Rites of Zhou, Artificers' Record ($\text{Kǎo Gōng Jì}$), states:

"Metal has six alloys ($\text{qí}$): if one part in six is tin, it is called the alloy for bells and tripods."

This proportion demanded that the bell’s sound be rich and deep, not thin or frivolous. The character "substantial" ($\text{shí}$) describes both the solid, heavy body of the bell and the full, rich quality of its sound.

Culturally, the bell was a "heavy vessel" ($\text{zhòng qì}$) in pre-Qin times, not comparable to ordinary instruments. Bells and tripods were spoken of together as heavy vessels of the state. States possessing bells and tripods were esteemed, while their loss was considered a humiliation. The Zuo Zhuan ($\text{Zuǒ Zhuàn}$), in the second year of Duke Cheng, recounts the capture of the state of Qi's bells by Jin, indicating the great political significance of bells. The "unifying" ($\text{tǒng}$) aspect of the bell implies not just musical coordination but also political leadership.

Section 4: "Chime Stone is Pure and Regulated" ($\text{qìng lián zhì}$) — The Imagery of the Chime Stone

"The chime stone is pure and regulated" ($\text{qìng lián zhì}$)—This states the chime stone’s quality is both "pure/angular" ($\text{lián}$) and "regulated/controlled" ($\text{zhì}$).

The character "pure/angular" ($\text{lián}$) has multiple meanings in pre-Qin texts:

First, the meaning of "integrity" or "uprightness." Xunzi, On Self-Cultivation ($\text{Xiū Shēn}$) states: "Integrity ($\text{lián}$) without sharpness ($\text{guài}$)." Here, $\text{lián}$ means integrity.

Second, the meaning of "edge" or "distinctness." The original meaning of $\text{lián}$ relates to angularity; any part of an object with a clear edge can be called $\text{lián}$. Xunzi, Not Deviating ($\text{Bù Gǒu}$) states: "A gentleman is broad but not lax, $\text{lián}$ but not wounding ($\text{guài}$), dialectical but not contentious." Here, $\text{lián}$ is contrasted with $\text{guài}$ (wounding), meaning having clear edges without causing harm.

Third, the meaning of "crispness" or "clear resonance," derived from "distinct edges," describing a sound that is crisp and clean, without lingering ambiguity.

The "purity/angularity" ($\text{lián}$) of the chime stone should incorporate the latter two meanings. The chime stone (or jade chime stone) is struck, producing a sound that is crisp, sharp, clear-edged, distinct, and not muddled. This sound stands in sharp contrast to the drum's "grandness" ($\text{dà}$), the bell's "substantiality" ($\text{shí}$), and the chime stone’s sound is clear and flowing like water, transparent to the bottom.

The meaning of "regulated" ($\text{zhì}$) is restraint, standard, or rule. Xunzi, The Kingly Way ($\text{Wáng Zhì}$) states: "Regulate ($\text{zhì}$) and then employ it." Here, $\text{zhì}$ means system or restraint. The "regulation" ($\text{zhì}$) of the chime stone implies its quality of measured restraint—it is not overly ostentatious or wildly unrestrained, but characterized by proper limits and measure.

Combining "Pure/Angular" ($\text{lián}$) and "Regulated" ($\text{zhì}$), the chime stone’s character is crisp and distinct, yet measured and restrained. This aligns with the subsequent statement "the chime stone resembles Water"—the character of water is precisely "pure/angular" ($\text{lián}$) and "regulated" ($\text{zhì}$): Water's clarity and transparency constitute its "purity/angularity" ($\text{lián}$) (immaculate clarity), and its tendency to follow the terrain and conform to containers constitutes its "regulation" ($\text{zhì}$) (having restraint, not overstepping boundaries).

Master Laozi speaks of water:

"The highest good is like water. Water benefits myriad things and does not contend; it dwells in places that people disdain, thus it is close to the Dao. Goodness in dwelling is in position; goodness in the mind is in depth; goodness in association is in benevolence; goodness in speaking is in trustworthiness; goodness in governance is in order; goodness in action is in capability; goodness in timing is in movement. Because it does not contend, it is blameless." (Laozi, Chapter 8)

Water’s "non-contention" ($\text{bù zhēng}$) matches the chime stone’s "regulation" ($\text{zhì}$) —measured restraint without aggressive assertion. Water "benefits myriad things" while remaining intrinsically clear, matching the chime stone’s "purity/angularity" ($\text{lián}$) —upright and beneficial to others.

Why does the chime stone, made of hard stone, resemble soft water$14 This is a profound question. Stone is extremely hard; water is extremely soft. How can the sound of a stone instrument resemble water$15 The answer lies in the distinction between "sound" ($\text{shēng}$) and "substance" ($\text{tǐ}$). Although the chime stone’s body is stone (hard), its sound is clear and flowing like water (soft). This embodies Laozi’s principle that "the soft overcomes the hard." The hardness of the stone produces the softness of the sound—there is deep significance here.

The function of the chime stone in the pre-Qin ensemble corresponds to its "pure and regulated" ($\text{lián zhì}$) character. Ancient texts mention:

"Striking the ringing jade-chime ($\text{míng qiú}$), beating the drum, playing the qín and sè in order to chant." (Book of Documents, Yi Ji)

The "ringing jade-chime" ($\text{míng qiú}$) is the chime stone, which served to regulate and conclude sections in the music, possessing a "regulating" ($\text{zhì}$) function. The ancients said, "striking the chime stone to cease the music" ($\text{jī qìng yǐ zhǐ yuè}$); the chime stone’s clear, short sound was suitable for marking the sections and turning points of a piece, thus fulfilling the function of "regulation" ($\text{zhì}$).

Section 5: "Yu, Sheng, and Xiao are Harmonious" ($\text{yú shēng xiāo hé}$) — The Harmony of Wind Instruments

"The yú, shēng, and xiāo are harmonious" ($\text{yú shēng xiāo hé}$)—This states the character of these three wind instruments is "harmony" ($\text{hé}$).

The concept of "Harmony" ($\text{hé}$) holds a supremely exalted position in pre-Qin philosophy. "Harmony" ($\text{hé}$) is not "Sameness" ($\text{tóng}$); this is a crucial distinction in pre-Qin thought. The Discourses of the States ($\text{Guó Yǔ}$), in the "Speech of Zheng" ($\text{Zhèng Yǔ}$), records the words of Scholar Shi Bo:

"Harmony ($\text{hé}$) indeed generates things; Sameness ($\text{tóng}$) cannot continue. To equalize the different ($\text{yǐ tā píng tā}$) is called harmony ($\text{hé}$), hence it can flourish and things return to it. If one adds sameness to sameness, everything will eventually be discarded."

"To equalize the different" ($\text{yǐ tā píng tā}$) is harmony ($\text{hé}$); accumulating identical elements results in mere sameness ($\text{tóng}$). "Harmony" generates, "Sameness" does not. This distinction is profoundly significant.

Furthermore, the Zuo Zhuan ($\text{Zuǒ Zhuàn}$), in the twentieth year of Duke Zhao, records Yanzi’s discussion distinguishing "Harmony" from "Sameness":

"Harmony is like a soup: water, fire, vinegar, salted meat paste, salt, and plums are used to cook fish and fowl, heated by firewood, seasoned by the cook. ... Sound is like flavor: one primary tone ($\text{yī qì}$), two structures ($\text{èr tǐ}$), three classes ($\text{sān lèi}$), four materials ($\text{sì wù}$), five notes ($\text{wǔ shēng}$), six pitches ($\text{liù lǜ}$), seven tones ($\text{qī yīn}$), eight winds ($\text{bā fēng}$), nine songs ($\text{jiǔ gē$), inter-completing each other. Clarity and turbidity, large and small, long and short, fast and slow, sorrowful and joyful, hard and soft, slow and quick, high and low, in and out, sparse and dense, complement each other ($\text{yǐ xiāng jì yě}$)."

Yanzi uses cooking to illustrate musical "harmony" ($\text{hé}$), pointing out that "harmony" is the mutual cooperation, supplementation, and coordination of different sounds. The many contrasting elements—"clarity and turbidity, large and small," etc.—"complement each other" ($\text{yǐ xiāng jì yě}$), resulting in "harmony" ($\text{hé}$).

Why do the yú, shēng, and xiāo embody "harmony" ($\text{hé}$)$16

The yú and shēng both belong to the gourd family (the shēng has a gourd chamber). Structurally, both are reed instruments where multiple pipes are inserted into a gourd chamber. Blowing into the chamber allows several pipes to sound simultaneously, producing a "chord" effect from a single player. This is the most unique characteristic among pre-Qin instruments—most produce only one note at a time, while the shēng can produce multiple notes simultaneously, which is the essence of "harmony" ($\text{hé}$). The Book of Odes ($\text{Shī Jīng}$), Minor Odes of the Kingdom, Deer Call ($\text{Lù Míng}$), states:

"I have worthy guests; I strike the sè and blow the shēng. Blowing the shēng and beating the reeds, receiving the baskets they bring."

"Striking the sè and blowing the shēng"—the pairing of sè and shēng is an embodiment of "harmony" ($\text{hé}$). "Blowing the shēng and beating the reeds"—the shēng produces sound via its reeds, with multiple reeds vibrating together, making the instrument itself an image of "harmony" ($\text{hé}$).

The yú is similar to the shēng but larger, with more pipes, producing a louder sound. The xiāo (the ancient xiāo was not the modern vertical flute but a panpipe, a set of arranged pipes) was also a multi-pipe instrument. All three are characterized by the coordinated action of multiple pipes, and their sound quality is defined by "harmony" ($\text{hé}$).

On a deeper level, "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) in pre-Qin thought is not just a musical term but a social ideal. The Analects, in the chapter Xue Er ($\text{Xué Ér}$), records Ziyou’s saying:

"In the application of Rites ($\text{Lǐ}$), harmony ($\text{hé}$) is most valued. The way of the former kings, this is what is beautiful."

"Harmony is most valued" ($\text{hé wéi guì}$) is the highest realization of $\text{Lǐ}$. The "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) of the yú, shēng, and xiāo not only describes their musical quality but also subtly implies the social ideal of achieving harmony through music—different sounds coordinating, like different groups of people living in harmony.

Section 6: "Guan and Yue Emit Fierceness" ($\text{guǎn yuè fā měng}$) — The Fierceness of Tube Instruments

"The guǎn and yuè emit fierceness" ($\text{guǎn yuè fā měng}$)—This states the quality of the guǎn and yuè wind instruments is "emitting fierceness" ($\text{fā měng}$).

The character "emit" ($\text{fā}$) means to inspire, stimulate, or set in motion. The character "fierceness" ($\text{měng}$) means vehemence, strength, or spirited exertion. Combined, "emitting fierceness" ($\text{fā měng}$) means their sound is vigorous and resolute, stirring the human spirit.

The guǎn is a single-pipe instrument, typically made of bamboo, blown either straight or across the embouchure, producing a high, sharp, penetrating sound. The yuè is also a bamboo wind instrument; the Erya ($\text{Ěryǎ}$, an ancient glossary) identifies the yuè as a three-holed flute. The sound of the guǎn and yuè, compared to the "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) of the yú, shēng, and xiāo, is simpler, more direct, and more soaring. Because they are single-pipe instruments (or few-piped), not multi-piped like the shēng, their sound is more focused and sharp, possessing a penetrating quality.

Why are they described as "emitting fierceness" ($\text{fā měng}$)$17 "Emit" ($\text{fā}$) is like "to develop" or "to launch"—the sound soars high and travels far, possessing strong penetrative power; "Fierceness" ($\text{měng}$) is like "vehement" or "powerful"—the sound is resolute and strong, stirring the human will.

The function of the guǎn and yuè in the ensemble is precisely to "emit fierceness" ($\text{fā měng}$): amidst the deep resonance of the drum, the substance of the bell, the crispness of the chime stone, and the harmony of the shēng and yú, the guǎn and yuè interject with their high-pitched, sharp sounds, like a general’s horn in the army, invigorating the spirit and stimulating resolution.

The Book of Odes, Greater Hymns of Zhou ($\text{Zhōu Sòng}$), Yǒu Gǔ ($\text{Yǒu Gǔ}$), states:

"When the rites are prepared, then begin the performance; the xiāo and guǎn are raised together." ($\text{Xiāo guǎn bèi jǔ}$)

"The xiāo and guǎn are raised together" shows that the guǎn held an important position even in the ancestral temple music of the pre-Qin period.

Furthermore, the Book of Odes, Airs of Bei ($\text{Bèi Fēng}$), Jiǎn Xī ($\text{Jiǎn Xī}$), states:

"In the left hand, holding the yuè; in the right, grasping the pheasant tail feathers ($\text{dí}$)." ($\text{Zuǒ shǒu zhí yuè, yòu shǒu bǐng dí}$)

This describes a dance poem; the dancer holds the yuè in the left hand and pheasant feathers in the right, showing that the yuè was not only used for playing but also held as a ritual implement during dance, possessing a ceremonial function.

The term "emitting fierceness" ($\text{fā měng}$) resonates with the later cosmic correspondence: "The yú, shēng, xiāo, guǎn, and yuè resemble the stars, the sun, and the moon." The brilliance of the stars and the sun is precisely "fiercely emitted" ($\text{fā měng}$)—their light radiates powerfully, piercing the darkness and illuminating all directions. The sound of the guǎn and yuè is like the light of the sun and moon, soaring high and far, rousing the human heart.

We must ask: why are the yú, shēng, xiāo separated from the guǎn and yuè$18 They are all wind instruments; why such different qualities$19

The answer lies in the structural differences of the instruments. The yú, shēng, and xiāo (panpipe) are "multi-pipe" instruments; the simultaneous sounding of multiple pipes naturally produces the quality of "harmony" ($\text{hé}$). The guǎn and yuè are "single-pipe" instruments (or few-piped); the single pipe produces sound independently, naturally resulting in the quality of "fierce emission" ($\text{fā měng}$). "Multi" leads to "harmony"; "single" leads to "fierceness"—this is a quality determined by the instrument's intrinsic structure, not an arbitrarily assigned quality. Xunzi’s "Imagery of Sound and Music" is a precise capture of these natural qualities.

This distinction also contains profound social philosophy. "Harmony" ($\text{hé}$) is the virtue of the collective—many people coordinating, like the multi-pipe resonance of the shēng and yú. "Fierce Emission" ($\text{fā měng}$) is the virtue of the individual—a single person striving vigorously, like the single-pipe assertion of the guǎn and yuè. Society requires both collective harmony and individual vigor; neither can be dispensed with.

Section 7: "Xun and Chi are Expansive and Ample" ($\text{xūn chí wēng bó}$) — The Breadth of Earthly Instruments

"The xūn and chí are expansive and ample" ($\text{xūn chí wēng bó}$)—This states the quality of the xūn and chí instruments is "expansive and ample" ($\text{wēng bó}$).

The character "expansive/old" ($\text{wēng}$) here is often equated with "瓮" (wèng, jar) or "buzzing" (wēng), describing a sound that is deep, full, and continuously reverberating, like the sound emanating from a large jar. It can also be interpreted as "dignified and voluminous" ($\text{yōng róng}$), implying a sound that is steady and full, neither rushed nor impatient. Both interpretations converge on the sound being deep and substantial.

The character "ample/broad" ($\text{bó}$) means extensive or comprehensive. The "breadth" ($\text{bó}$) of the sound refers to its wide range and deep timbre, possessing a character capable of embracing all things.

Combining "Expansive/Old" ($\text{wēng}$) and "Ample" ($\text{bó}$), the sound of the xūn and chí is deep and reverberating, yet broad and inclusive.

The xūn is made of fired clay, hollow, with a blowing hole and finger holes. Its sound is extremely unique—low, deep, slightly husky, carrying a sense of vast, distant melancholy, like the breath of the earth or an echo from antiquity. This sound is the most "archaic" among all instruments, with the least ornamentation or superficial brilliance, yet it most profoundly touches the deepest emotions of the heart.

The chí is a bamboo transverse flute, closed at one end, producing a sound that is also relatively deep and rich, softer and more reserved than the flute (dí).

Why are xūn and chí grouped together as "expansive and ample" ($\text{wēng bó}$)$20 From the material perspective, the xūn is made of earth, and the chí of bamboo; from the structural perspective, the xūn is egg-shaped and hollow, while the chí is a tube closed at one end. Despite different materials and forms, why do they share the quality of "expansive and ample" ($\text{wēng bó}$)$21

The answer lies in their common characteristic: both are wind instruments with closed or semi-closed structures. The xūn is essentially a sealed hollow body (with only finger/blowing holes), and the chí is a closed tube. This structure allows the air current to vibrate fully inside the vessel, producing a deep, rich timbre. Compared to open-tube instruments (like the flute or guǎn) whose sounds are bright and soaring, the xūn and chí sounds are more reserved, introverted, deep, and substantial, hence described as "expansive and ample" ($\text{wēng bó}$).

The character "ample/broad" ($\text{bó}$) holds particular significance. Xunzi, On Self-Cultivation states: "Hearing much is called breadth ($\text{bó}$)." The Analects, in the chapter Zi Han ($\text{Zǐ Hán}$), records Master Kong’s saying:

"Expand me with culture ($\text{wén}$), and restrict me with ritual ($\text{lǐ}$)."

"Breadth" ($\text{bó}$) means extensive and inclusive. Why is the sound of the xūn and chí considered "ample" ($\text{bó}$)$22 Because their sound is deep and substantial, lacking sharpness or aggression, possessing a capacity to embrace everything. Like the vastness of the Earth that accommodates all things, the sound of the xūn and chí can integrate with the sounds of other instruments without asserting itself or suppressing others, serving as a deep foundation that supports the ensemble.

The xūn and chí are often mentioned together in pre-Qin poetry. The Book of Odes, Minor Odes of the Kingdom, Hé Rén Sī ($\text{Hé Rén Sī}$), states:

"The elder brother plays the xūn, the second brother plays the chí." ($\text{Bó shì chuī xūn, zhòng shì chuī chí}$)

The pairing of "xun and chi" symbolizes fraternal harmony (later, "the affection of xūn and chí" refers to brotherly affection). Why can the xūn and chí symbolize brotherhood$23 Precisely because their sounds are both "expansive and ample" ($\text{wēng bó}$)—deep, broad, and inclusive—which is the virtue that should exist between brothers: being broad-minded and tolerant toward others, accommodating differences, and jointly supporting the harmony of the lineage.

Section 8: "Se is Easily Good" ($\text{sè yì liáng}$) — The Goodness of the Se

"The sè is easily good" ($\text{sè yì liáng}$)—This states the quality of the sè (zither) is both "easy/gentle" ($\text{yì}$) and "good" ($\text{liáng}$).

The character "easy/gentle" ($\text{yì}$) has multiple meanings in pre-Qin texts:

First, the meaning of "gentle" or "mild." As mentioned in passages describing the demeanor of the virtuous, it implies approachability. This aligns with the attitude of King Yu, praised by Confucius in the Analects, Tai Bo ($\text{Tài Bó}$): "He reduced the size of his palaces and devoted his efforts to dykes and moats." This is the attitude of "easy" ($\text{yì}$)—approachable and not aloof.

Second, the meaning of "changeability" ($\text{biàn yì}$), as in the Yijing ($\text{Zhōu Yì}$).

Third, the meaning of "simplicity" ($\text{jiǎn yì}$). The Yijing, Great Treatise ($\text{Xì Cí}$), states: "If it is easily understood ($\text{yì yì}$), it is easily known... if it is easily known, then people will be close to it."

The "easy" ($\text{yì}$) quality of the sè should refer to its "gentle" and "mild" nature. The sè is a multi-stringed instrument (pre-Qin sè often had twenty-five strings). Having many strings allows for a wide range and a gentle, pleasing tone. Unlike the qín, which is compact and focused, the sè's sound spreads out, like spring rain nurturing the earth, mild and moistening.

The meaning of "good" ($\text{liáng}$) is kindness, excellence, or superior quality. Although Master Xunzi adheres to the theory of "evil nature," he also acknowledges that acquired "goodness" ($\text{liáng}$) can be achieved through conscious effort. The "goodness" ($\text{liáng}$) of the sè means its sound is benevolent and mild, lacking any sharp or grating quality, making listeners sincerely pleased.

Combining "Easy/Gentle" ($\text{yì}$) and "Good" ($\text{liáng}$), the sè's character is mild, approachable, and inherently good. This character perfectly matches the sè's form and function.

The sè was widely used in pre-Qin rites and music. The Book of Odes frequently mentions "striking the sè":

"The graceful, modest young lady, the qín and sè delight her." (Shī Jīng, Guān Jū)

"I have worthy guests; I strike the sè and strike the qín." (Shī Jīng, Lù Míng)

"The qín and sè are being played; all is quiet and well." (Shī Jīng, Nǚ Yuē Jī Míng)

The sè is often paired with the qín in banquets, sacrifices, and intimate music. Its wide range and mild tone made it suitable for accompanying song, thus explaining its extensive application in ritual and music practice.

The "easily good" ($\text{yì liáng}$) quality of the sè also carries a hidden social philosophy. "Easy" ($\text{yì}$) implies approachability, and "Good" ($\text{liáng}$) implies benevolence—a mild, approachable, and kind character is precisely the virtue of the ideal gentleman sought by pre-Qin Confucians. The Analects, in Xue Er ($\text{Xué Ér}$), states:

"The Master's manner was warm, benevolent, respectful, frugal, and yielding." ($\text{wēn, liáng, gōng, jiǎn, ràng}$)

The Master's five virtues include "good" ($\text{liáng}$). The "goodness" ($\text{liáng}$) of the sè thus corresponds to Confucius's virtue of "goodness" ($\text{liáng}$).

Section 9: "Qin is Pleasantly Feminine" ($\text{qín fù hǎo}$) — The Imagery of the Qin

"The qín is pleasantly feminine" ($\text{qín fù hǎo}$)—This states the quality of the qín (guqin) is "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$).

The interpretation of these three characters has varied historically. The key lies in how "feminine" ($\text{fù}$) is understood.

First, some scholars interpret "feminine" ($\text{fù}$) as meaning "gentle and graceful" ($\text{róu wǎn}$). "Pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$) describes a sound that is gentle and beautiful, reflecting the actual quality of the qín's sound. The qín has few strings (five or seven in the pre-Qin era); its range is focused, and its tone is quiet and subtly graceful, more reserved and introverted than the sè, hence described as "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$).

Second, some scholars take "feminine" ($\text{fù}$) as a variant of "to spread" ($\text{fū}$), making "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$) mean "spread beautifully" ($\text{pū hǎo}$), describing the ubiquitous beauty of the qín's sound.

Third, some interpret "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$) literally as "like the pleasantness of a woman" ($\text{rú fù rén zhī hǎo}$), describing the qín's sound as gentle and soft like a woman's grace. This interpretation, while direct, is not necessarily derogatory; pre-Qin thought did not universally view "feminine beauty" as inferior but as a distinct quality.

Regardless of interpretation, "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$) describes a sound quality of gentleness, subtlety, and beauty. This contrasts sharply with the drum's "grand beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$) and the bell's "comprehensive substantiality" ($\text{tǒng shí}$). The drum and bell possess qualities of strength and depth; the qín possesses qualities of gentleness and subtlety. It is this balance of hard and soft that constitutes perfect "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) in the ensemble.

The qín's status in pre-Qin culture was highly unique. It was not merely an instrument but a tool for self-cultivation for the gentleman. Master Kong played the qín throughout his life. Although the Records of the Grand Historian ($\text{Shǐ Jì}$) is a Han work, the account of Confucius learning the qín from Master Xiangzi likely preserves a pre-Qin tradition. The Analects, in the chapter Yang Huo ($\text{Yáng Huò}$), records Confucius saying:

"When the Master arrived in Wu Cheng, he heard the sound of strings and song. The Master smiled slightly and said, 'Why use an ox-slaughtering knife to carve a chicken$24'" ($\text{Gē yán, zǐ zài qí wén xián gē zhī shēng, fū zǐ wǎn ěr ér xiào yuē: 'Gē jī yān yòng niú dāo$25')

"Strings and song" ($\text{xián gē}$) meant playing the qín or sè to accompany singing, a common practice in pre-Qin education. The "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$) quality of the qín—its gentle beauty—corresponds to its function of "self-cultivation" ($\text{xiū shēn}$) and "moral guidance" ($\text{jiào huà}$): it does not subdue men through force but transforms them through gentle persuasion.

We must again ask: why are the qín and sè distinguished$26 Both are silk-stringed instruments, yet their qualities differ.

The answer lies in their structural differences. The sè has many strings (twenty-five or more), giving it a broad range and moderate volume; its sound unfolds gently, like wind warming the earth—hence, "easily good" ($\text{yì liáng}$). The qín has few strings (five or seven); while its range is not narrow, the fewer strings mean each must bear more expressive responsibility. Performance emphasizes subtle finger techniques (such as vibrato, gliding, bending, etc.), resulting in a tone that is more reserved, internalized, subtle, and refined—hence, "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$).

The sè's "easily good" ($\text{yì liáng}$) leans toward expansion, mildness, and breadth; the qín's "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$) leans toward internalization, subtlety, and grace. The two are Yin and Yang, hard and soft, complementing each other.

Section 10: "Song is Purely Exhaustive" ($\text{gē qīng jìn}$) — The Exhaustion of Song

"Song is purely exhaustive" ($\text{gē qīng jìn}$)—This states the quality of song is both "pure" ($\text{qīng}$) and "exhaustive" ($\text{jìn}$).

The meaning of "pure" ($\text{qīng}$) is crucial in pre-Qin contexts. "Pure" means clear, transparent, and upright. Xunzi, Dispelling Obscurity ($\text{Jiě Bì}$) states:

"How does the heart know$1 It is when the heart is empty, unified, and still. ... When the heart is empty, unified, and still, it is called Great Clarity and Brightness ($\text{dà qīng míng}$)."

The highest state of the heart is "Great Clarity and Brightness" ($\text{dà qīng míng}$); "purity" ($\text{qīng}$) is the supreme quality of the mind. Song’s "purity" ($\text{qīng}$) means the human voice, when sung, possesses a quality of clarity and purity. The human voice differs from instruments: instruments are constrained by material and craftsmanship, inevitably carrying the characteristics of their substance (metal sounds deep, stone sounds brittle, bamboo sounds bright, earth sounds subdued). The human voice, however, issues from the mouth and originates from the heart; if the heart is clear, the sound will naturally be clear. Song’s "purity" ($\text{qīng}$) is the external manifestation of the heart’s "purity" ($\text{xīn qīng}$).

The meaning of "exhaustive" ($\text{jìn}$) is to reach the end, completeness, or perfect fulfillment. Master Kong comments on the Shao Music ($\text{sháo yuè}$):

"The Master said of the Shao: 'It is perfectly beautiful ($\text{jìn měi}$), and moreover perfectly good ($\text{jìn shàn}$). As for the Wu Music, it is perfectly beautiful, but not perfectly good.'" (Analects, Ba Yi)

"Perfectly beautiful" and "perfectly good"—"exhaustive" ($\text{jìn}$) means complete. Song’s "exhaustiveness" ($\text{jìn}$) means that singing can fully express human emotion, exhausting the depth and breadth of feeling without reservation. Instrumental music requires a material medium (metal, stone, earth, bamboo, silk, etc.); human song proceeds directly from the heart, transmitted through the mouth, with the fewest intervening steps, thus achieving the greatest "purity" ($\text{qīng}$) and "exhaustiveness" ($\text{jìn}$).

We must ask: Why is human song placed after the ten instruments and before dance$2

Logically, the passage describes the qualities of various instruments sequentially, and song represents an elevation of instrumental music—a leap from the material instrument to the human voice, from "instrument" ($\text{qì}$) to "person" ($\text{rén}$). Dance further advances this, moving from "sound" ($\text{shēng}$) to "body" ($\text{shēn}$), from hearing to sight and kinesthesia, from "human sound" to "human body." The progression from instrumental music to song to dance is one of deepening involvement and ultimate sublimation.

The Book of Rites: Record of Music offers a similar description:

"Thus, the singer, the high notes are like ascending, the low notes like descending, the curves like bending, the pauses like dead wood, the upright posture like a square, the bent posture like a hook, the connected phrases like strung pearls."

These descriptions emphasize the clarity, precision, and perfection of song, matching "pure and exhaustive" ($\text{qīng jìn}$).

Section 11: "Dance Combines the Intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{wǔ yì tiān dào jiān}$) — The Comprehensiveness of Dance

"Dance combines the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{wǔ yì tiān dào jiān}$)—These five characters describe the quality of dance as "combining" ($\text{jiān}$) the "intent" ($\text{yì}$) of the "Dao of Heaven" ($\text{tiān dào}$). This sentence is the summary and climax of the entire passage, and also the most difficult to interpret.

"Intent" ($\text{yì}$) here should be understood as "purpose" or "meaning." "Dao of Heaven" ($\text{tiān dào}$) refers to the Great Dao of Heaven. "Combine" ($\text{jiān}$) means to possess or encompass both. Taken together, it means that the purpose of dance is to encompass the Dao of Heaven—dance uses the human body as a medium to express the entirety of the Dao’s meaning, encompassing the principles of Heaven and Earth and the myriad things.

Why can dance "combine the intent of the Dao of Heaven"$3 This is the core question of this section, which Master Xunzi answers profoundly in the following passage ("How is the intent of dance known$4"), detailed in the next chapter. Here, we offer only a preliminary analysis of the five characters themselves.

The status of dance in pre-Qin ritual music was the highest. The Rites of Zhou, Office of Music: Grand Master ($\text{Chūn Guān: Dà Sī Yuè}$), records:

"Using music and dance to instruct the nobility of the state, they dance the Yunmen, Da Juan, Da Xian, Da Ao, Da Xia, Da Huo, and Da Wu."

All Six Dynasties' Music is named after its "dance" ($\text{wǔ}$), indicating that "dance" was the highest form of music. Why$5 Because dance is the only art form that utilizes the entire human body as its medium: the drum is struck with a mallet, the bell struck with a rod, the qín plucked with fingers, song sung with the mouth—all use only a part of the body as a tool. Only dance uses the entirety of the person—head, neck, shoulders, arms, hands, waist, legs, feet—to express meaning.

The use of "combine" ($\text{jiān}$) lies precisely here. Each instrument/activity captures one aspect of the Dao: the drum for "grandness," the bell for "substantiality," the chime stone for "purity," and so on; song for "purity and exhaustion," which is close to completeness but still limited to the auditory realm. Only dance, using the entire body, combining sight and kinesthesia, and encompassing rhythm and melody (moving in time with the bell and drum), combines both hardness and softness (the alternation of rising/falling, bending/stretching, advancing/retreating, slow/fast), and thus can "combine the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$) by embodying the Dao’s totality through the body’s complete movement and comprehensive meaning.

The Philosopher Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals ($\text{Lǚ Shì Chūn Qiū}$), in the section Ancient Music ($\text{Gǔ Yuè}$), records:

"In the time of Lord Getian, the music involved three men holding ox tails and stamping their feet while singing eight movements."

Ancient music was intrinsically integrated with song and dance—"holding ox tails, stamping their feet while singing"—involving the entire body. This was the most primal form of music and also its highest form.

The phrase "Dao of Heaven" ($\text{tiān dào}$) here also holds deep meaning. Xunzi’s concept of the Dao of Heaven differs from that of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Xunzi: On Heaven ($\text{Tiān Lùn}$) states:

"The movements of Heaven possess constancy; they do not stop for Yao, nor do they cease for Jie."

Xunzi’s Dao of Heaven refers to the regular order of natural operation. The "combining the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$) in dance means using the ordered movement of the human body to simulate and correspond to the ordered operation of the Dao of Heaven. Heaven has the alternation of day and night (like the alternation of rising and falling), the cycle of four seasons (like the coming and going of advancing and retreating), and the waxing and waning of Yin and Yang (like the variation in speed). The dancer uses bodily movements to "interpret" the operation of the Dao of Heaven—this is the profound meaning of "combining the intent of the Dao of Heaven."

Section 12: The Overall Structure of the Ten Instruments and Ten Virtues

Reviewing the entire passage of "The Imagery of Sound and Music," the qualities of the twelve instruments/activities can be summarized as follows:

• Drum: Grandly Beautiful ($\text{dà lì}$): Sublime and splendid, the sovereign of music.
• Bell: Comprehensively Substantial ($\text{tǒng shí}$): Unifying and substantial, the foundation of music.
• Chime Stone: Pure and Regulated ($\text{lián zhì}$): Crisp and restrained, the standard of music.
• Yú, Shēng, Xiāo: Harmonious ($\text{hé}$): Coordinated and concordant, the confluence of music.
• Guǎn, Yuè: Emitting Fierceness ($\text{fā měng}$): Vigorous and resolute, the spirit of music.
• Xūn, Chí: Expansive and Ample ($\text{wēng bó}$): Deep and broad, the substance of music.
• Sè: Easily Good ($\text{yì liáng}$): Gentle and kind, the warmth of music.
• Qín: Pleasantly Feminine ($\text{fù hǎo}$): Subtle and beautiful, the grace of music.
• Song: Purely Exhaustive ($\text{qīng jìn}$): Clear and complete, the sincerity of music.
• Dance: Combines the Intent of the Dao of Heaven ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$): Encompassing the Dao of Heaven, the totality of music.

The qualities of these twelve items neatly form a spectrum moving from hard to soft, from external to internal, and from part to whole. The drum is the most rigid, external, and largest; dance is the most complete, internal, and encompassing. The entire arrangement represents a progression from "instrument" to "person," from "part" to "whole," and from "one aspect of the Dao of Heaven" to "the totality of the Dao of Heaven."

This is not merely an aesthetic description but a miniature cosmology—using the framework of the twelve sonic elements to mirror the structure of the myriad things in Heaven and Earth. The next chapter will discuss the specific unfolding of this cosmology.