Chapter Two: Line-by-Line Reading of "The Imagery of Music" -- Ten Instruments, Ten Virtues

Section 1: Overview -- The System of Ten Instruments and Ten Virtues

The "imagery of music" passage, in supremely concise language, describes the character of ten types of instruments (drum, bell, chime-stone, mouth-organ, sheng, panpipes, tube, flute, ocarina, chi-flute, se-zither, and qin-zither), as well as song and dance -- twelve items in all. These twelve can be grouped as follows:

The order of these twelve items is not arbitrary but follows an inner logic. Broadly speaking, from drum to chime-stone we have percussion instruments; from mouth-organ/sheng/panpipes to ocarina/chi-flute, wind instruments; se-zither and qin-zither are stringed instruments; and the sequence culminates in song and dance. This ordering corresponds closely to the pre-Qin "eight timbres" (ba yin) classification.

The "eight timbres," as recorded in the Zhouli (Rites of Zhou), "Office of the Grand Music Master," are:

"All are performed with the eight timbres: metal, stone, clay, hide, silk, wood, gourd, and bamboo."

Metal denotes bells, stone denotes chime-stones, clay denotes ocarinas, hide denotes drums, silk denotes qin and se, wood denotes the wooden box (zhu) and tiger-scraper (yu), gourd denotes the sheng and mouth-organ, and bamboo denotes panpipes, tubes, flutes, and chi-flutes. Although Master Xun's passage does not follow the eight-timbres order strictly, the instruments he discusses cover most of these categories.

More remarkable still is the fact that Master Xun's character-description for each instrument is extraordinarily apt and laden with deeper meaning. Let us examine each in turn.

Section 2: "The Drum Is Grand and Resplendent" -- The Image of the Drum

"The drum is grand and resplendent" (gu da li) -- three characters declaring the drum's character as "grand" (da) and "resplendent" (li).

In the pre-Qin context, da does not merely denote physical largeness; it carries connotations of the sublime, the great, the supreme. The Tuanzhuan (Commentary on the Judgment) of the Qian hexagram in the Yijing says:

"How great is the primal power of Qian! All things owe their beginning to it; it governs Heaven."

Here da describes the sublime greatness of the Way of Heaven -- far surpassing a mere contrast of large and small. The Most High (Laozi) likewise says:

"There was something formless yet complete, born before heaven and earth. Silent and void, standing alone and unchanging, moving in cycles without ceasing, it may be regarded as the mother of heaven and earth. I do not know its name; I style it 'the Way'; forced to give it a name, I call it 'the Great' (da)." (Laozi, Chapter 25)

"Forced to give it a name, I call it 'the Great'" -- the Way is named "Great," using da to designate that which is beyond speech and beyond naming.

The "greatness" of the drum accords precisely with this sense. The drum's sound is deep, resonant, and stirring, as vast as heaven, as sublime as the Way. In physical size, the drum is indeed the largest of all instruments (a great drum may stand several feet tall; the jianzgu and fengu are enormous constructions), and its sound is the most powerful and far-reaching, so the epithet "grand" is richly deserved.

The meaning of li requires careful discrimination. In the pre-Qin period, li carries several senses:

First, "attaching to" or "adhering to." The Tuanzhuan of the Li hexagram in the Yijing says:

"Li means 'attaching.' The sun and moon attach to heaven; the hundred grains and grasses attach to earth. Twofold brightness attaching to what is right -- thus is all under heaven transformed and perfected."

Here li means to adhere or cling. The sun and moon adhere to heaven; grains and grasses adhere to earth; the radiance of civilization adheres to the right Way, and thereby transforms all under heaven.

Second, "brilliance" or "splendor." The character li is related to "deer" (lu); the antlers of a stag are magnificent and splendid, whence the extension to splendor and brilliance.

Third, "pairing" or "coupling." Li carries the sense of "matching," that is, forming a pair.

The "resplendence" of the drum should be understood as combining the first two senses. On one hand, the drum's sound is immense, like the sun and moon adhering to heaven, radiant and glorious, the crown of all instruments -- hence li in the sense of brilliance. On the other hand, the drum is the sovereign of music (as the text says next: "Is the drum not the sovereign of music$11"), and all instruments adhere to the drum's rhythm -- hence li in the sense of adherence and unifying governance.

Taking "grand" and "resplendent" together, the drum's character is sublimity, magnificence, and the governance of the entire ensemble. This perfectly matches the later statement "the drum resembles Heaven" -- for heaven's character is precisely "grand" and "resplendent": the boundlessness of heaven is "grand"; its sun, moon, and stars are "resplendent."

Why does the drum merit this epithet$12 On the physical level, the drum is made by stretching hide over a frame, hollow inside, and struck with a mallet to produce sound. Its sound is deep, resonant, with large amplitude and low frequency, able to penetrate through the sounds of other instruments. In ensemble performance, the drum provides the fundamental rhythmic skeleton to which all other instruments adhere. Just as heaven is the greatest and most exalted of all things, the drum is the greatest and most exalted of all instruments.

On the cultural level, the drum held an exceptionally special position in archaic society. It was used in sacrifice to communicate with the spirits, in warfare to rally troops, at court to promulgate decrees, and at village banquets to harmonize host and guests. The Zhouli, "Office of the Drum Master," records the system of six drums:

"The thunder-drum is used for divine sacrifices, the spirit-drum for communal sacrifices, the road-drum for ancestral offerings, the signal-drum for military affairs, the labor-drum for corvee work, and the advance-drum for metal-and-bell performances."

Six types of drums for different occasions attest to the drum's ubiquity in pre-Qin social life. Its "grandeur and resplendence" describes not only its sonic character but also its supreme social standing.

Why the drum alone occupies so exalted a position requires tracing the drum's origins in high antiquity -- a subject treated in a later chapter.

Section 3: "The Bell Is Unifying and Substantial" -- The Image of the Bell

"The bell is unifying and substantial" (zhong tong shi) -- three characters declaring the bell's character as "unifying" (tong) and "substantial" (shi).

Tong means to unify, to integrate, to serve as a guiding thread. In the Xunzi, "Against the Twelve Masters": "Model themselves on the former kings and unify ritual and propriety." Here tong means to integrate and serve as a guiding principle. The "unifying" quality of the bell refers to the bell's function of integrating all sounds. In pre-Qin ensembles, bells -- especially sets of tuned bells (bianzhong) -- held an extremely important position, often serving as the pitch standard and structural marker for the entire ensemble. The ancients used the term "metal performance" (jin zou) for music led by bells, and the Zhouli, "Office of the Bell Master," records:

"The Bell Master is in charge of metal performances. For all musical events, bells and drums are used to perform the Nine Xia."

"Metal performance" is ensemble music led by bells -- the concrete expression of the bell's "unifying" quality.

Shi means solidity, fullness, substantiality -- the opposite of "empty" (xu). The "substantiality" of the bell refers to the weighty fullness of its sound. Cast from an alloy of copper and tin, the bell is solid and thick; when struck, its tone is rich, full, and sustained, conveying a sense of stability and gravitas.

Together, "unifying" and "substantial" describe the bell as integrating all sounds while possessing inner fullness. This matches the later statement "the bell resembles Earth" -- for earth's character is precisely "unifying" and "substantial": earth bears all things and provides the unifying foundation for them all; earth's substance is solid and heavy, not empty or frivolous.

The Tuanzhuan of the Kun hexagram in the Yijing says:

"How perfect is the primal power of Kun! All things owe their birth to it; it obediently receives the influence of Heaven. Kun is thick and bears all things; its virtue is boundless. It contains and nurtures all; every creature finds its fulfillment."

"Kun is thick and bears all things" -- Kun's solidity in bearing all things matches the bell's "substantiality." "Every creature finds its fulfillment" -- all things achieve their potential, matching the bell's "unifying" quality. The bell's "unifying substantiality" is the portrait of Kun's virtue.

Why does the bell merit this description$13 Physically, tuned bells are cast in bronze, a material that is solid and heavy. Their timbre is rich and weighty, with long-lasting reverberations; in the ensemble they serve to establish pitch, set tempo, and lead the whole -- a unifying role. The ancients were extremely particular about the ratio of copper to tin in bell-casting. The Zhouli, "Records of Crafts," notes:

"Metal has six standard alloys: for bells and cauldrons, the alloy is six parts metal to one part tin."

This ratio produces a sound that is rich rather than thin. The word "substantial" describes both the physical solidity of the bell's body and the fullness of its tone.

On the cultural level, bells in the pre-Qin period were "weighty vessels" (zhong qi), far above ordinary instruments. Bells and cauldrons were named together as objects of state prestige. Feudal lords took pride in possessing bells and cauldrons and felt disgraced at losing them. The Zuozhuan records episodes of bells being captured in war, demonstrating the immense political significance of bells. The "unifying" quality of the bell implies not only musical integration but also political leadership.

Section 4: "The Chime-Stone Is Incorrupt and Measured" -- The Image of the Chime-Stone

"The chime-stone is incorrupt and measured" (qing lian zhi) -- three characters declaring the chime-stone's character as "incorrupt" (lian) and "measured" (zhi).

Lian carries several pre-Qin meanings:

First, "integrity" or "uprightness." The Xunzi, "Cultivating the Person": "Incorrupt yet not cutting." Here lian means moral integrity.

Second, "sharp-edged" or "clearly defined." The original meaning of lian relates to edges and corners; any sharply defined edge may be called lian. The Xunzi, "On Not Being Indulgent": "The gentleman is broad-minded yet not slack, incorrupt yet not cutting, articulate yet not contentious." Here lian and "cutting" (gui) are paired: having edges without causing injury.

Third, "crisp" or "clear-ringing" -- an extension from "sharply defined," describing a sound that is crisp and clean, with no dragging or muddiness.

The "incorruptness" of the chime-stone draws on the latter two senses. Made of stone (or jade), the chime-stone, when struck, produces a crisp, clean sound -- clear-edged, well-defined, and free from murkiness. This contrasts sharply with the drum's "grandeur" and the bell's "substantiality" -- the drum's sound is vast and deep, the bell's is full and sustained, while the chime-stone's is crisp and bright, like the flow of water, limpid to the bottom.

Zhi means restraint, regulation, measure. The Xunzi, "On the Regulations of a King": "Regulate and make use of them." The "measure" of the chime-stone refers to the quality of restraint in its sound: it does not overreach, does not run wild, but strikes just the right degree.

Together, "incorrupt" and "measured" describe the chime-stone's character as crisp, clearly defined, and properly restrained. This matches the later statement "the chime-stone resembles Water" -- for the character of water is precisely "incorrupt" and "measured": water's limpid transparency is "incorruptness" (purity without stain), and water's way of flowing with the terrain, adapting to the shape of its vessel, is "measure" (restraint that does not overreach).

The Most High (Laozi) speaks of water thus:

"The highest good is like water. Water excels in benefiting all things and does not contend; it dwells in places that the multitude disdains; therefore it comes close to the Way." (Laozi, Chapter 8)

Water's "not contending" matches the chime-stone's "measure" -- restrained and not aggressive. Water's benefiting of all things while remaining limpid matches the chime-stone's "incorruptness" -- pure and beneficial.

Why does a stone instrument have an "image" that resembles water$14 The question is deeply intriguing. Stone is the hardest of materials, water the softest -- how can the sound of stone resemble water$15 The answer lies in the distinction between "sound" and "substance." Although the chime-stone's body is stone (hard), its sound is clear and flowing like water (soft). This accords with the Most High's principle that "the soft overcomes the hard" -- the hardest stone produces the softest sound. "Sound" is the outward manifestation of stone's inner "virtue"; though stone's substance is hard, stone's voice is gentle. There is profound meaning in this.

The chime-stone's function in the pre-Qin ensemble likewise corresponds to its "incorrupt and measured" character. The Shangshu, "Yi and Ji," records:

"Strike and sound the singing-jade, play the hand-drum, qin, and se, and accompany with singing."

"Singing-jade" (ming qiu) is a jade chime-stone; in the ensemble it serves a restraining, concluding function. The ancients said, "Strike the chime-stone to stop the music" -- the chime-stone's crisp, brief sound was ideal for marking the divisions and endpoints of a composition, performing the function of "measure."

Section 5: "The Mouth-Organ, Sheng, and Panpipes Are Harmonious" -- The Harmony of the Wind Instruments

"The mouth-organ, sheng, and panpipes are harmonious" (yu sheng xiao he) -- four characters declaring that the mouth-organ (yu), the sheng, and the panpipes (xiao) are characterized by "harmony" (he).

The concept of he occupies an extraordinarily exalted position in pre-Qin philosophy. "Harmony" is not "uniformity" -- this distinction is one of the most important in pre-Qin thought. The Guoyu (Discourses of the States), in the "Discourses of Zheng," records the words of Historian Bo:

"It is harmony that truly generates things; uniformity cannot sustain them. To balance one thing with another that differs from it -- this is called harmony, and thereby things can grow abundantly and all return to it. But if you supplement the same with the same, everything will be exhausted and discarded."

"To balance one thing with another that differs from it -- this is called harmony" -- different things mutually coordinating and balancing constitute "harmony." When identical things are merely heaped together, the result is "uniformity." Harmony generates; uniformity does not. This distinction is profoundly important.

The Zuozhuan, Duke Zhao Year 20, records Minister Yan's discussion of the difference between "harmony" and "uniformity":

"Harmony is like broth: water, fire, vinegar, meat sauce, salt, and plums are used to cook fish and meat, heated with firewood, and the cook blends them, balancing the flavors. ... Sound too is like flavor: one breath, two forms, three varieties, four substances, five pitches, six pitch-pipes, seven notes, eight winds, nine songs -- all complete one another. Clear and turbid, small and great, short and long, fast and slow, sorrowful and joyful, hard and soft, slow and quick, high and low, entering and exiting, dense and sparse -- all balance one another."

Minister Yan uses the metaphor of cooking to illustrate musical "harmony": he points out that harmony is the mutual coordination, complementation, and balancing of different sounds.

Why can the mouth-organ, sheng, and panpipes embody "harmony"$16

The mouth-organ and sheng both belong to the gourd class (the sheng uses a gourd as its wind-chest). Structurally, both are free-reed instruments that produce sound through the vibration of reed tongues. The sheng is constructed with multiple bamboo pipes inserted into a gourd wind-chest, each pipe fitted with a reed at the base; when blown, several pipes can sound simultaneously, producing a "harmonic" effect of multiple notes sounding at once. This is unique among pre-Qin instruments -- most other instruments produce only one note at a time, but the sheng can produce several. The Shijing (Book of Songs), "Lesser Elegantiae," "Deer Cry," says:

"I have honored guests; I play the se and blow the sheng. Blow the sheng, sound the reeds, and present the basket-gifts."

"Play the se and blow the sheng" -- the pairing of se and sheng is itself an expression of "harmony." "Blow the sheng, sound the reeds" -- the sheng sounds through its multiple reeds vibrating together, an intrinsic image of harmony.

The mouth-organ (yu) is similar to the sheng but larger, with more pipes and greater volume. The panpipes (xiao -- in the pre-Qin period, xiao referred not to the end-blown flute of later eras but to the pan-flute, an arrangement of bamboo tubes of varying lengths) is likewise a multi-pipe instrument. All three share the characteristic of "multiple pipes sounding in coordination," and all produce sounds characterized by "harmony."

At a deeper level, he in pre-Qin thought is not merely a musical term but a social ideal. The Lunyu (Analects), "Xue Er" (Learning), records the words of Master You:

"In the practice of ritual, harmony is what is valued. In the Way of the former kings, this is what is beautiful."

"Harmony" is the highest attainment of ritual. The "harmony" of the mouth-organ, sheng, and panpipes describes not only their musical character but also implies the social ideal of achieving harmony through music -- many different voices coordinating, just as many different groups of people coexist in peace.

Section 6: "The Tube and Flute Are Rousing and Fierce" -- The Fierceness of the Tube and Flute

"The tube and flute are rousing and fierce" (guan yue fa meng) -- four characters declaring the tube (guan) and flute (yue) to be characterized by "rousing fierceness" (fa meng).

Fa carries the sense of initiating, arousing, stimulating. Meng carries the sense of ferocity, vigor, spirited intensity. Together, "rousing and fierce" means that the sound of the tube and flute is stirring, vigorous, and spirit-rousing.

The tube is a single-pipe instrument made of bamboo, blown vertically or horizontally, producing a high, piercing sound. The flute (yue) is likewise a bamboo wind instrument; the Erya glosses it as a three-holed pipe. Compared to the "harmony" of the mouth-organ, sheng, and panpipes, the tube and flute produce a sound that is more singular, more direct, more piercingly brilliant. Precisely because they are single-pipe instruments -- unlike the multi-pipe sheng and mouth-organ -- their sound is more concentrated and incisive, with great penetrating power.

Why "rousing and fierce"$17 "Rousing" (fa) implies the voice soaring and projecting far, with strong penetrating power. "Fierce" (meng) implies a vigorous, forceful sound that stirs the spirit.

In the ensemble, the tube and flute serve precisely this "rousing and fierce" function -- amid the deep resonance of drums, the full sound of bells, the crisp ring of chime-stones, and the harmonious blend of mouth-organs and sheng, the tube and flute pierce through with their high, keen sound, like bugles in a regiment, stirring the spirit and rousing the will.

The Shijing, "Hymns of Zhou," "There Are Blind Musicians," says:

"When all are ready they play; panpipes and tubes are raised together."

The Shijing, "Airs of Bei," "Jian Xi," says:

"In the left hand he holds the flute (yue), in the right he grasps the pheasant-plume."

This poem describes a dancer who holds a flute in one hand and a pheasant feather in the other, showing that the yue was used not only for blowing but also held during dance, serving as a ritual implement.

"Rousing and fierce" echoes the later statement that "the mouth-organ, sheng, panpipes, tube, and flute resemble the stars, sun, and moon." The radiance of stars, sun, and moon is indeed "rousing and fierce" -- blazing in all directions, brilliant and dazzling, piercing the darkness, illuminating the far reaches. The sound of the tube and flute, like the light of sun and moon, soars far and wide, stirring the human heart.

One may further ask: why are the mouth-organ, sheng, and panpipes discussed separately from the tube and flute -- one group "harmonious," the other "rousing and fierce"$18 All are wind instruments; why such different characters$19

The answer lies in structural difference. The mouth-organ, sheng, and panpipes are "multi-pipe" instruments whose pipes sound in coordination, naturally presenting a "harmonious" character. The tube and flute are "single-pipe" instruments (or few-piped), sounding independently, naturally presenting a "rousing and fierce" character. "Many" yields "harmony"; "one" yields "fierceness" -- these are not characters arbitrarily assigned by human will, but natural qualities determined by the instruments' own structures. Master Xun's "imagery of music" precisely captures these natural qualities.

This distinction also carries a profound social philosophy. "Harmony" is a collective virtue -- many people coordinating, like the sheng's many pipes vibrating together. "Rousing fierceness" is an individual virtue -- a single person exerting vigorous effort, like the tube's single pipe sounding alone. Society needs both collective harmony and individual vigor; neither can be neglected.

Section 7: "The Ocarina and Chi-Flute Are Deep and Broad" -- The Breadth of Clay and Bamboo

"The ocarina and chi-flute are deep and broad" (xun chi weng bo) -- four characters declaring the ocarina (xun) and chi-flute (chi) to be characterized by "depth and breadth" (weng bo).

Weng here is cognate with "weng" (the sound of a large jar humming) -- describing a low, resonant, reverberating sound, like a great vessel droning. Some scholars gloss weng as "dignified composure," suggesting a sound that is unhurried and deeply resonant. Both interpretations converge: they indicate a sound of profound depth and fullness.

Bo means expansive, broad, capacious. A "broad" sound is one with wide range and deep timbre, possessing a spirit of all-encompassing magnanimity.

Together, "deep and broad" declares the ocarina and chi-flute to produce sounds that are profoundly resonant and expansively inclusive.

The ocarina is made of fired clay, hollow, with a blowing hole and finger holes. Its sound is utterly distinctive -- low, thick, slightly husky, with a quality of vast desolation, like the breathing of the earth itself, an echo from remote antiquity. Among all instruments, this sound is the most "archaic," the least adorned and ornate, yet the most capable of touching the deepest reaches of human emotion.

The chi-flute is a bamboo transverse wind instrument with a bottom and cap; its sound is likewise relatively low and full, softer and more restrained than that of the di-flute.

Why are the ocarina and chi-flute described together as "deep and broad"$20 In material, the ocarina is clay and the chi-flute is bamboo; in structure, the ocarina is ovoid and hollow, the chi-flute is tubular with a closed end. They differ in material and form -- how do they share the character of "depth and breadth"$21

The answer lies in their common feature: both are wind instruments with closed or partially sealed structures. The ocarina is a fully enclosed hollow body (with only blowing and finger holes); the chi-flute likewise has a sealed bottom (the ancient chi-flute was closed at both ends). This enclosed structure allows airflow to resonate thoroughly within the instrument, producing a deep, full tone. Compared to open-tube instruments (such as the di-flute or tube), whose sound is bright and soaring, the ocarina and chi-flute are more contained, more inward, more profoundly resonant -- hence "deep and broad."

The bo (broad) in "deep and broad" is especially meaningful. The Xunzi, "Cultivating the Person": "Widely learned -- that is 'broad.'" The Lunyu, "Zi Han," records the Master's words:

"He broadened me with culture and restrained me with ritual."

Bo means expansiveness and inclusiveness. Why is the sound of the ocarina and chi-flute "broad"$22 Because their deep, full tones are neither sharp nor cutting, possessing a spirit that embraces everything. Just as the earth in its vastness can receive all things, the sound of the ocarina and chi-flute can blend with the sounds of all other instruments, never pushing itself forward, never suppressing others, but providing a deep foundation that supports the whole ensemble.

In pre-Qin poetry, the ocarina and chi-flute are often named together. The Shijing, "Lesser Elegantiae," "He Ren Si," says:

"The elder brother blows the ocarina; the younger brother blows the chi-flute."

The paired naming of ocarina and chi-flute symbolizes brotherly harmony (later ages used "the concord of ocarina and chi-flute" as a metaphor for brotherly affection). Why can these instruments symbolize brotherhood$23 Precisely because the sound of both is "deep and broad" -- generous, expansive, and inclusive -- the very virtues that should characterize the bond between brothers: treating others with magnanimity, embracing differences, and jointly sustaining family harmony.

Section 8: "The Se-Zither Is Gentle and Good" -- The Goodness of the Se

"The se-zither is gentle and good" (se yi liang) -- three characters declaring the se's character as "gentle" (yi) and "good" (liang).

Yi carries several pre-Qin meanings:

First, "equable" or "mild." The Lunyu, "Tai Bo," records the Master's praise of King Yu: "He reduced the grandeur of his palace and devoted his energies to irrigation channels" -- all expressions of an yi attitude: approachable and unpretentious.

Second, "change" -- the yi of the Yijing (Book of Changes) includes the sense of "transformation."

Third, "simplicity." The Xici Zhuan of the Yijing: "What is simple (yi) is easy to understand ... what is easy to understand is easy to feel close to."

The se's "gentleness" takes the sense of "equable" and "mild." The se is a many-stringed instrument (pre-Qin se-zithers had as many as twenty-five strings); with many strings, its range is wide and its tone warm and gentle, not as tightly focused as the qin but spreading outward like spring rain, warm and soothing.

Liang means good, fine, excellent. Although Master Xun's "Human Nature Is Evil" chapter maintains the doctrine of innate evil, it also acknowledges that subsequent "goodness" (liang) can be achieved through cultivation. The "goodness" of the se means that its sound is benign and warm, free from harshness or stridency, bringing contentment and assent.

Together, "gentle and good" describes the se's character as mild, approachable, and benevolent. This accords perfectly with its form and function.

The se was used extremely widely in pre-Qin ritual music. The Shijing contains many references to "playing the se":

"The modest, retiring, virtuous maiden -- he courts her with qin and se." (Shijing, "Airs of Zhou," "Guan Ju")

"I have honored guests; I play the se and play the qin." (Shijing, "Lesser Elegantiae," "Deer Cry")

"With qin and se at hand, all is peaceful and fine." (Shijing, "Airs of Zheng," "The Wife Says at Cockcrow")

The se is often named together with the qin and used at banquets, sacrifices, and private music-making. With its wide range and warm tone, it is ideal for accompanying song, and in ritual-music practice it was the most widely used instrument.

The se's "gentleness and goodness" also carries a social-philosophical implication. "Gentle" (yi) means approachable; "good" (liang) means benevolent -- a character that is mild, approachable, and good is precisely the ideal Confucian virtue of the gentleman. The Lunyu, "Xue Er," says:

"The Master obtained it through being warm, good, respectful, frugal, and deferential."

Among the Master's five virtues -- "warm, good (liang), respectful, frugal, and deferential" -- liang stands prominent. The se's "goodness" answers to the Master's virtue of liang.

Section 9: "The Qin-Zither Is Graceful and Fine" -- The Beauty of the Qin

"The qin-zither is graceful and fine" (qin fu hao) -- three characters declaring the qin's character as "graceful and fine" (fu hao).

The interpretation of these three characters has long been debated. The key question is how to understand fu.

One view glosses fu as "soft and graceful," so fu hao means "softly graceful and beautiful," describing the qin's tender, pleasing sound. This reading starts from the qin's actual sonic character: with its few strings (pre-Qin qin-zithers had five or seven strings), the qin's range is relatively concentrated, its tone serene and delicate, more restrained and inward than the se; hence "graceful and fine" (softly beautiful).

A second view takes fu as a phonetic loan for fu (meaning "to spread"), so fu hao would mean "pervadingly beautiful" -- the beauty of the qin's sound pervades everywhere.

A third view reads fu hao directly as "beautiful as a woman" -- the qin's beauty resembles the tender grace of a woman. Though this reading is straightforward, the pre-Qin era did not regard "feminine beauty" as something base; on the contrary, it was recognized as a distinctive quality.

Whichever reading one adopts, "the qin is graceful and fine" points toward a sonic character that is tender, subtle, and beautiful. This contrasts sharply with the drum's "grandeur and resplendence" and the bell's "unifying substantiality." The drum and bell embody vigorous, resonant character; the qin embodies tender, refined character. In the ensemble, it is precisely this interplay of strength and gentleness that constitutes complete "harmony."

The qin held an exceptionally special position in pre-Qin culture. It was not a mere instrument but the vessel of a gentleman's self-cultivation. The Master played the qin throughout his life. The Lunyu, "Yang Huo," records:

"The Master went to Wucheng and heard the sound of strings and singing. He smiled gently and said, 'Why use an ox-cleaver to kill a chicken$24'"

"The sound of strings and singing" (xian ge) means singing accompanied by qin and se -- the standard method of moral instruction in the pre-Qin period. The qin's "graceful beauty" accords perfectly with its function in self-cultivation and education: it does not overpower through force but transforms through gentleness.

One may further ask: why are the qin and se discussed separately$25 Both are silk-stringed instruments; why do their characters differ$26

The answer lies in structural differences. The se has many strings (twenty-five or more), a wide range, a relatively large volume, and a warm, open tone -- hence "gentle and good." The qin has few strings (five or seven); though its range is not narrow, fewer strings mean each string bears more expressive burden, and performance emphasizes the subtlety of fingering techniques (such as yin, nao, chuo, and zhu), producing a more contained, inward, refined, and delicate tone -- hence "graceful and fine."

The se's "gentleness and goodness" inclines toward openness, warmth, and breadth; the qin's "graceful beauty" inclines toward containment, refinement, and delicacy. One yang, one yin; one strong, one soft -- they complement each other.

Section 10: "Song Is Clear and Complete" -- The Completeness of Song

"Song is clear and complete" (ge qing jin) -- three characters declaring song's character as "clear" (qing) and "complete" (jin).

Qing carries great significance in the pre-Qin context. The Xunzi, "Dispelling Blindness," says:

"How does the mind know$27 I say: through emptiness, unity, and stillness. ... Emptiness, unity, and stillness -- this is called 'great clarity' (da qing ming)."

The mind's highest state is "great clarity" -- qing is the supreme quality of the mind.

The "clarity" of song means that the human singing voice is, in character, clear, limpid, and pure. The human voice differs from instrumental sound: instruments are constrained by their materials and craftsmanship and inevitably carry the characteristics of those materials (metal sounds are thick, stone sounds are crisp, bamboo sounds are bright, clay sounds are deep). But the human voice issues from the mouth and originates in the heart; if the heart is clear, the voice will naturally be limpid. The "clarity" of song is the outward manifestation of inner "clarity of heart."

Jin means to exhaust, to bring to completion, to achieve perfection. The Master said of the Shao music:

"He said of the Shao that it was perfectly beautiful and also perfectly good. He said of the Wu that it was perfectly beautiful but not yet perfectly good." (Lunyu, "Ba Yi")

"Perfectly beautiful" and "perfectly good" -- jin means "completely." The "completeness" of song means that singing can fully express the depths and breadth of human emotion, leaving nothing unexpressed.

Together, "clear and complete" declares that the character of singing is limpid purity and full expressiveness. The singing voice is the most direct, most natural, and most fully expressive mode of all "music." Instrumental music must work through material media (metal, stone, clay, bamboo, silk, etc.); the human voice issues directly from the human heart and the human mouth, with the fewest intermediaries, and is therefore best able to convey emotion with "clarity" and "completeness."

One may ask: why is the singing voice placed after the ten instruments and before dance$28

From instruments to song to dance is a process of ever-deepening, ever-ascending engagement, culminating in the whole person's total involvement.

The Yueji of the Liji offers a similar description:

"In singing, the voice rises as if lifted up, descends as if falling, turns as if bending, stops as if dead wood, bows to the square, curves to the hook, and flows on in a continuous string like beads on a thread."

All these descriptions emphasize the clarity, precision, and perfection of singing -- exactly the meaning of "clear and complete."

Section 11: "Dance Conveys the Way of Heaven in Its Entirety" -- The Totality of Dance

"Dance conveys the Way of Heaven in its entirety" (wu yi tian dao jian) -- five characters declaring the character of dance as "conveying the Way of Heaven in its entirety." These five characters constitute the summary and climax of the entire passage, and the most challenging to interpret.

Yi here means "import" or "intent." Tian dao is the great Way of Heaven. Jian means to encompass, to include completely. Taken together, "dance conveys the Way of Heaven in its entirety" means that the intent of dance is to encompass the fullness of the Way of Heaven -- dance uses the human body as its medium to express the entire significance of the cosmic Way, embracing the principles of heaven, earth, and all things.

Why can dance "convey the Way of Heaven in its entirety"$29 This is the passage's most central question. Dance held the highest position among all forms of pre-Qin ritual music. The Zhouli, "Office of the Grand Music Master," records:

"Teach the sons of the state the musical dances: the dance of 'Cloud Gate,' 'Great Cycle,' 'Great Harmony,' 'Great Xia,' 'Great Huo,' and 'Great Wu.'"

All six dynastic musical compositions are named as "dances," showing that "dance" is the supreme form of music. Why$30 Because dance is the only art form that uses the entire human body as its medium. Only dance employs the full body -- head, neck, shoulders, arms, hands, waist, legs, and feet -- in all its movements to convey meaning.

The word jian (entirety) is key. Each instrument has its particular emphasis -- the drum emphasizes "grandeur," the bell "substantiality," the chime-stone "incorruptness"; each captures only one aspect of the Way of Heaven. Only dance "encompasses" both the visual and the kinesthetic, "embraces" rhythm and melody, "unites" strength and gentleness. Hence it can "convey the Way of Heaven in its entirety."

The Lushi Chunqiu, "Ancient Music," records:

"In ancient times, the music of the Lord of Ge Tian was thus: three men grasped ox-tails, stamped their feet, and sang eight stanzas."

Archaic music already united song and dance as one -- hands, feet, and voice all participating. This was music's most primordial form, and also its highest form.

The Xunzi, "Discourse on Heaven," says:

"Heaven operates with constancy; it does not exist for the sake of Yao, nor does it cease for the sake of Jie."

Dance that "conveys the Way of Heaven in its entirety" uses the ordered movements of the human body to model the ordered operation of the Way of Heaven. Heaven has the alternation of day and night (like the alternation of bending and raising), the cycle of four seasons (like the back-and-forth of advancing and retreating), the waxing and waning of yin and yang (like the variation of slowing and quickening) -- the dancer "enacts" the operation of the Way of Heaven through bodily movement.

Section 12: The Overall Structure of the Ten Instruments and Ten Virtues

Surveying the entire "imagery of music" passage, the characters of the twelve instruments and activities can be summarized as follows:

• Drum -- Grand and resplendent: Sublime and magnificent; the sovereign of music.
• Bell -- Unifying and substantial: Integrating and full; the foundation of music.
• Chime-stone -- Incorrupt and measured: Crisp and restrained; the measure of music.
• Mouth-organ, sheng, panpipes -- Harmonious: Coordinated; the unity of music.
• Tube and flute -- Rousing and fierce: Stirring and vigorous; the animation of music.
• Ocarina and chi-flute -- Deep and broad: Full and expansive; the depth of music.
• Se-zither -- Gentle and good: Mild and benevolent; the warmth of music.
• Qin-zither -- Graceful and fine: Tender and beautiful; the delicacy of music.
• Song -- Clear and complete: Limpid and exhaustive; the sincerity of music.
• Dance -- Conveying the Way of Heaven in its entirety: Embracing the cosmic Way; the totality of music.

The characters of these twelve items form a complete spectrum from strong to gentle, from outer to inner, from part to whole. The drum is the most vigorous, the most external, the most grand; dance is the most comprehensive, the most profound, the most all-embracing. The entire sequence traces a progression from "instrument" to "person," from "part" to "whole," from "one aspect of the Way of Heaven" to "the Way of Heaven in its entirety."

This is not merely a description of musical aesthetics but a miniature cosmology -- using the twelve elements of music as a framework to reflect the character and structure of heaven, earth, and all things. The next chapter discusses this cosmology in detail.