The Image of Music and Sound in Xunzi's 'On Music': A Study of Character, Cosmos, and the Cultivation of Rites and Music

Chapter Three: Instruments and Heaven and Earth: The Acoustic Mapping of the Cosmological Diagram

Section 1: "Is Not the Drum the Sovereign of Music$6" ($\text{gǔ qí yuè zhī jūn xié}$) — The Drum as Musical Sovereign

The second passage opens with the assertion: "Is not the drum the sovereign of music$7" ($\text{gǔ qí yuè zhī jūn xié}$).

This sentence, phrased as a rhetorical question, puts forth a crucial judgment: the drum is the "sovereign" ($\text{jūn}$) of sound and music. The structure "Is it not...$8" ($\text{qí...xié}$) is a pre-Qin rhetorical device, meaning "Is it not the case that...$9", delivered with firm and slightly passionate emphasis.

Why is the drum the "sovereign" ($\text{jūn}$) of music$10

The character "sovereign" ($\text{jūn}$) has a dual meaning in pre-Qin usage: first, a ruler or leader; second, the highest or most venerable entity. The drum being the "sovereign" of music means it holds a dominating position in the ensemble—it governs the entirety, determines the rhythm, controls the tempo, and all other instruments must obey the drum's beat.

This is not unique to Xunzi. The Book of Rites: Record of Music ($\text{Lǐ Jì: Yuè Jì}$) also states:

"The sound of the drum ($\text{gǔ pǐ}$) is clamorous ($\text{huān}$). Clamor establishes movement ($\text{lì dòng}$); movement advances the multitude ($\text{jìn zhòng}$)."

The drum’s sound is "clamorous" (grand and stirring), used to "establish movement" (set the dynamic rhythm) and "advance the multitude" (guide the group forward). The drum sound is the rallying signal for the ensemble, the unified beat for the collective.

In pre-Qin ritual practice, the drum’s status was indeed supreme. In sacrifices, banquets, military expeditions, or hunts, the drum provided the command. In ensemble playing, the drummer strikes the drum to set the tempo, and all instruments enter according to this beat. Just as a state has a sovereign, the drum is the sovereign of music.

We must ask a deeper question here: Why the drum, and not the bell, the chime stone, or the qín, as the "sovereign"$11

From a physical perspective, the drum’s acoustic characteristics naturally suit it for the role of "Musical Sovereign." The drum’s low frequency and high amplitude provide strong penetration, making its sound the most easily perceived among all instruments. The drum’s rhythm is clear and unambiguous (a distinct "Dong—Dong—Dong—"), unlike string or wind instruments which have melodic fluctuations, making it most suitable as the unified rhythmic baseline. The drum’s decay is rapid (the leather vibrates and ceases quickly), ensuring clear rhythmic punctuation, unlike the long resonance of the bell which can muddy the tempo. All these physical qualities make the drum naturally the rhythmic leader of the ensemble.

From a symbolic perspective, the drum’s status as "sovereign" ($\text{jūn}$) is closely related to its resemblance to Heaven (discussed below). Heaven is the sovereign of all things; the drum is the sovereign of instruments. This correspondence is the core of the entire "Imagery of Sound and Music" cosmology.

Furthermore, the drum as "sovereign" carries a political philosophical implication. Xunzi’s political thought centers on the concept of the "Ruler" ($\text{jūn}$). Xunzi: The Way of the Ruler ($\text{Jūn Dào}$) states:

"The ruler is the source ($\text{yuán}$) of the people. If the source is pure, the stream is pure; if the source is turbid, the stream is turbid."

The ruler is the source of the people. Similarly, the drum is the source of music: if the drum sets the rhythm, all instruments follow; if the drum sound is pure, the music is pure; if the drum sound is chaotic, the music is chaotic. The phrase "Is not the drum the sovereign of music$12" connects the principle of music with the principle of politics, using music to illustrate governance—a consistent feature of Xunzi’s thought.

Section 2: "Drum Resembles Heaven" ($\text{gǔ sì tiān}$) — Leather Sound and the Dao of Heaven

"Therefore, the drum resembles Heaven" ($\text{gù gǔ sì tiān}$)—The drum's quality resembles that of Heaven. Why$13

What is the quality of Heaven$14 The Yijing, in the commentary on the Qian Trigram ($\text{Qián guà}$), states:

"The movement of Heaven is vigorous ($\text{jiàn}$); the gentleman strives ceaselessly ($\text{zì qiáng bù xī}$)."

Heaven’s quality is "vigorous" ($\text{jiàn}$) —strong, ceaseless movement. Heaven, the sun, and the moon cycle without pause; the four seasons alternate without stopping. The drum’s "grand beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$) matches Heaven’s "vigor" ($\text{jiàn}$): the drum sound is grand and powerful, its rhythm firm and unwavering, governing the whole without slackening.

Furthermore, Heaven covers all myriad things. Heaven is above, Earth below; all things exist between Heaven and Earth. Heaven covers everything without exception. The drum sound also does this—its sound is grand and deep, covering the sounds of other instruments, providing a vast background and framework for the entire musical expression.

Heaven is also the beginning of the myriad things. The Yijing, Qian Trigram, Tuan Zhuan states: "How grand is the Origin of Qian! The myriad things begin with it ($\text{wàn wù zī shǐ}$), and it embraces Heaven." All things originate from Heaven. Music also begins with the drum—the ancients first struck the drum to set the tempo before other instruments joined. The drum sound is the "beginning" ($\text{shǐ}$) of music, just as Heaven is the "beginning" ($\text{shǐ}$) of all things.

On a deeper level, the drum’s resemblance to Heaven is also related to its original cultural significance. In ancient mythology, the drum was closely associated with thunder. Thunder is the sound of Heaven—Heaven is inherently silent, and only thunder is Heaven’s utterance. The drum is a human instrument—humans sought to produce a sound like Heaven’s, and only the drum could approximate it. The Yijing, Zhen Trigram ($\text{Zhèn}$), symbolizes Thunder, and the drum sound resembles thunder. The ancients simulated thunder with the drum to communicate divine will—the drum's original religious function. This will be discussed further in a later chapter.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas ($\text{Shān Hǎi Jīng}$), Classic of the Great Wilderness: East ($\text{Dà Huāng Dōng Jīng}$), records:

"In the Eastern Sea there is Mount Liubo, extending seven thousand li into the sea. On it is a beast shaped like an ox, with a dark body and no horns, possessing one foot. When it enters or leaves the water, there must be wind and rain. Its light is like the sun and moon, its sound like thunder, and its name is Kui. The Yellow Emperor obtained it and made a drum from its hide, using the bones of the thunder beast as the drumstick. Its sound could be heard five hundred li away, used to awe the world."

This myth connects the origin of the drum to the thunderous beast "Kui"—the drum is made from the hide of a thunder beast, making the drum an "tamed thunder." Its sound resembles thunder, thus "aweing the world." The drum’s "grand beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$) is indeed the "grand beauty" of thunder—the thunderous sound possesses supreme awe and brilliance. The drum "resembles Heaven" ($\text{sì tiān}$) at the mythological level because its sound resembles thunder, and thunder is the sound of Heaven.

In the shamanistic traditions of antiquity, the drum was the primary instrument for communication between humans and spirits. Shamans beat the drum to connect with the spiritual light, to expel ghosts, and to summon souls. The Songs of Chu ($\text{Chǔ Cí}$), "Hymns to the Great Unity of the Eastern Emperor" ($\text{Jiǔ Gē: Dōng Huáng Tài Yī}$), states:

"Raise the drumstick and strike the drum ($\text{yáng bāo xī fǔ gǔ}$), slow down the measure and chant serenely, arrange the yú and sè and chant grandly."

"Raise the drumstick and strike the drum" ($\text{yáng bāo xī fǔ gǔ}$)—this is the act of drumming during the sacrifice to the Supreme Emperor of the East. The drum occupies the foremost position in ritual music, serving as the primary instrument for communication between humans and the divine.

Furthermore, the Songs of Chu, "Lament for the Fallen" ($\text{Guó Shāng}$), describes a battle scene:

"Holding Wu spears and clad in rhinoceros armor, chariots interlock axles, close combat ensues. Banners obscure the sun, the enemy is like a cloud, arrows fall densely, warriors contend for the lead. Trampling our ranks, treading over our lines, the left horse is slain, the right is wounded. The axle breaks, the four horses are tethered, drawing the jade drumstick and beating the resounding drum ($\text{jí míng gǔ}$). The timing of Heaven falls, divine power rages, the slaughter ends, and the plain is abandoned."

"Drawing the jade drumstick and beating the resounding drum" ($\text{yuán yù bāo xī jī míng gǔ}$)—In fierce battle, the great drum is beaten. The drum’s function in war is to boost morale and unify action—precisely the manifestation of the drum’s "grand beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$) and its role as the "sovereign of music."

In summary, the primordial meaning of the drum in ancient culture was:

1. An artificial simulation of Heaven’s thunder (Drum resembles Heaven).
2. A shamanistic tool for communicating with spirits (used in sacrifice).
3. An operational command unifying the masses (used in war and politics).

These three meanings fully correspond to Xunzi’s description: "grandly beautiful" ($\text{dà lì}$), "the sovereign of music" ($\text{jūn xié}$), and "resembles Heaven" ($\text{sì tiān}$). Although Xunzi discusses these concepts using rationalized language, the underlying context remains rooted in ancient mythology and shamanism.

Section 3: "Bell Resembles Earth" ($\text{zhōng sì dì}$) — Metal Sound and Kun Virtue

"The bell resembles Earth" ($\text{zhōng sì dì}$)—The quality of the bell resembles that of Earth. Why$15

What is the quality of Earth$16 The Yijing, commentary on the Kun Trigram ($\text{Kūn guà}$), states:

"The way of Earth is yielding ($\text{shùn}$); the gentleman carries the burden of the myriad things with deep virtue ($\text{hòu dé zài wù}$)."

Earth’s quality is "richness/thickness" ($\text{hòu}$)—heavy and capable of supporting all things. The bell’s "comprehensive substantiality" ($\text{tǒng shí}$) matches Earth’s "richness" ($\text{hòu}$): the bell body is heavy and substantial, its sound deep and lingering, possessing the aura of "carrying the burden with deep virtue."

Furthermore, Earth nourishes all things. The Yijing, Kun Trigram, Tuan Zhuan states: "How excellent is the original nature of Kun, by which the myriad things are nourished and brought to life ($\text{wàn wù zī shēng}$)." All things originate from the Earth. The bell sound also has a "nurturing" function in the ensemble—its sound is full and rich, providing a stable pitch standard and harmonic background for other instruments, like the ground providing the basis for growth.

Also, a key quality of Earth is "compliance" ($\text{shùn}$). The virtue of Kun is "complying with and serving Heaven" ($\text{shùn chéng tiān}$) without deviation. The bell, relative to the drum, is like Earth relative to Heaven—the bell’s sound follows the drum’s rhythm, "complying with" ($\text{shùn chéng}$) the drum’s leadership, never striving to lead.

From the material perspective, the bell is made of metal (bronze), which comes from minerals, which are products of the Earth. The Rites of Zhou, Artificers' Record, meticulously details the properties of metal. Metal is mined from the Earth; the bell is cast from metal derived from the Earth, so its sound naturally "resembles Earth." This is not forced analogy but a consequence of material nature.

Another important quality of Earth is "stillness" ($\text{jìng}$). Heaven moves, but Earth is still—Heaven moves constantly (dynamic), while Earth remains unmoved (static). Although the bell vibrates when struck, its long resonance gives it a quality of stability and repose, unlike the strong rhythmic pulsation of the drum (high dynamism), instead permeating space with a full sound, giving a sense of security (high statis). This also aligns with "resembling Earth."

Section 4: "Chime Stone Resembles Water" ($\text{qìng sì shuǐ}$) — Stone Sound and Water Virtue

"The chime stone resembles Water" ($\text{qìng sì shuǐ}$)—The chime stone’s quality resembles that of Water.

This correspondence is particularly striking. The chime stone is made of stone, the hardest of materials; water is the softest and most yielding. How can the sound of a hard stone instrument "resemble" soft water$17

We briefly touched upon this earlier. Here we explore further.

The quality of water is described richly in pre-Qin thought.

Master Laozi states:

"The highest good is like water. Water benefits myriad things and does not contend; it dwells in places that people disdain, thus it is close to the Dao... Because it does not contend, it is blameless." (Laozi, Chapter 8)

"Nothing under Heaven is softer and weaker than water, yet in attacking what is hard and strong, nothing can overcome it, because nothing can replace it. That the weak overcomes the strong, and the soft overcomes the hard, is known by all under Heaven, but none can put it into practice." (Laozi, Chapter 78)

Master Kong also offered profound observations on water. Xunzi, Regarding the Seat of the Cauldrons ($\text{Yòu Zuò}$) records Confucius's words on observing water:

"Water, it benefits all things impartially and without self-interest—it resembles virtue ($\text{dé}$). Where it flows, things live—it resembles benevolence ($\text{rén}$). Its course is low and winding, yet it follows its principles—it resembles righteousness ($\text{yì}$)... Thus the gentleman, when he sees a great body of water, must observe it."

This passage correlates the qualities of water with eleven virtues: virtue, benevolence, righteousness, wisdom, courage, discernment, encompassment, transformation, correctness, measure, and resolve. It is a culmination of the pre-Qin "Water Virtue" theory.

The chime stone’s "resemblance to water" ($\text{sì shuǐ}$) should be understood in several aspects:

First, the clarity of sound ($\text{qīng}$). The chime stone’s sound is crisp like the clarity of water. Water’s most apparent quality is "clarity" ($\text{qīng}$): transparent, seen through to the bottom. The chime stone sound is similar: crisp, clean, pure in timbre, without muddy overtones.

Second, the flow of sound ($\text{liú}$). The chime stone’s sound is clear and flowing, like running water. Water flows following the terrain, separating around stones and reuniting in pools—flexible yet persistent. The chime stone’s sound plays a similar role in the ensemble—its crisp punctuation penetrates the deep sounds of the drum and bell, flowing flexibly, like water moving among stones.

Third, the regulation of sound ($\text{zhì}$). Although water is soft, it possesses "regulation" ($\text{zhì}$): water flows along its proper course, not overflowing its banks; the surface of still water finds its level ($\text{zhì liàng bì píng}$), not being biased. The chime stone’s "purity and regulation" ($\text{lián zhì}$) matches this quality of water—measured and restrained, never overstepping boundaries.

Fourth, the contrast between stone and water. Stone is extremely hard; water is extremely soft. Yet the stone chime stone produces a water-like sound—this is the wonder of the interplay between hard and soft. The hard produces a soft sound, just as the strong follows the gentle way. Master Laozi states "the soft overcomes the hard," and the stone chime stone producing a water-like sound illustrates this principle in practice.

The idea that the chime stone resembles water also has a deeper cosmological significance in pre-Qin thought. The drum resembles Heaven (above), the bell resembles Earth (below), and the chime stone resembles Water—Water flows between Heaven and Earth, moving on the ground and evaporating to the sky, serving as the medium connecting Heaven and Earth. The chime stone's function in the ensemble is similar—its crisp sound punctuates the deep sounds of the drum and bell, acting as a communicator, coordinator, and marker of nodal points, serving as the medium between the "Heaven" (drum) and "Earth" (bell) of the ensemble.

Section 5: "Yu, Sheng, and Xiao are Harmonious; Guan and Yue Resemble Stars, Sun, and Moon" ($\text{yú shēng xiāo hé guǎn yuè fā měng, sì xīng chén rì yuè}$) — Wind Instruments and Celestial Luminaries

"The yú, shēng, and xiāo are harmonious ($\text{hé}$), and the guǎn and yuè emit fierceness ($\text{fā měng}$), resembling the stars, the sun, and the moon"—The harmonious sound of the yú, shēng, and xiāo combined with the fierce sound of the guǎn and yuè collectively resembles the stars, the sun, and the moon.

How is this correspondence understood$18

The stars, sun, and moon are the luminous bodies in the sky—they hang in the firmament, each possessing its own radiance and orbital path. They exist independently yet shine together, forming the magnificent spectacle of the heavens.

The "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) of the yú, shēng, and xiāo resembles the multitude of stars—stars fill the sky, each in its position and with its own brightness, yet they coexist harmoniously, forming a dazzling stellar canopy. The beauty of the stars lies in their multiplicity and harmony ($\text{duō ér hé}$)—countless stars shining simultaneously without conflict—this is the ultimate state of "harmony" ($\text{hé}$).

The "fierce emission" ($\text{fā měng}$) of the guǎn and yuè resembles the light of the sun and moon—the light of the sun and moon is far brighter than that of the stars, radiating intensely and piercing the darkness—this is the quality of "fierce emission" ($\text{fā měng}$). The sun and moon are the most prominent among the stars, just as the sound of the guǎn and yuè stands out clearly amid the harmonious chorus of the shēng and yú, possessing a striking quality.

In summary, the "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) of the yú, shēng, and xiāo plus the "fierce emission" ($\text{fā měng}$) of the guǎn and yuè is like the harmony of the stars plus the radiance of the sun and moon—possessing both collective harmony and individual prominence, thus constituting the complete celestial scene.

This correspondence also implies a deeper meaning: the stars, sun, and moon are all sources of "light," and their essence is "brightness" ($\text{míng}$)—illuminating darkness and making all things visible. The "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) and "fierce emission" ($\text{fā měng}$) of the wind instruments also serve to "illuminate" within the ensemble—their sound is high and clear (compared to the deep resonance of the drum and bell), making them acoustically "brighter," just as the stars and moon are visually "brighter."

The Yijing, commentary on the Li Trigram ($\text{Lí guà}$), states:

"Li ($\text{Lí}$) is adherence ($\text{lì}$). The sun and moon adhere ($\text{lì yú tiān}$) to Heaven; the hundred grains and grasses adhere to the Earth. When accumulated brightness adheres ($\text{lì}$) to what is correct, then the world is transformed."

The "adherence" ($\text{lì}$) of the sun and moon to Heaven—adhering to Heaven and emitting light. The sound of the wind instruments is similar—adhering to the rhythm of the drum and bell (the foundation of Heaven and Earth) and emitting bright sound.

Cosmologically, Heaven (drum), Earth (bell), and Water (chime stone) form the basic framework of the universe; the stars, sun, and moon (wind instruments) are the luminous bodies operating within this framework, adding brilliance and vitality to the cosmos. In the ensemble, the drum, bell, and chime stone form the basic framework of rhythm and pitch, while the wind instruments interject melodies, adding brilliance and vitality to the music.

Section 6: "Táo, Zhù, Fǔ, Gé, Qiāng, Jié Resemble the Myriad Things" ($\text{táo zhù fǔ gé qiāng jié sì wàn wù}$) — Small Instruments and the Myriad Things

"The rattle drum (táo), striking block (zhù), beater (fǔ), drumstick (gé), wooden clapper (qiāng), and notched stick (jié) resemble the myriad things"—Various small percussion and rhythmic instruments resemble the myriad things.

This section introduces several small instruments or rhythmic aids not discussed in the initial description of qualities:

• Rattle Drum ($\text{táo}$): A rattle drum shaken by the handle, causing small spheres to strike the surface.
• Striking Block ($\text{zhù}$): A square wooden trough struck with a mallet, used to mark the beginning of a musical piece.
• Beater ($\text{fǔ}$): A small drum struck by hand.
• Drumstick ($\text{gé}$): A type of percussion instrument.
• Wooden Clapper ($\text{qiāng}$): Refers to the jié or similar wooden percussion tools.
• Notched Stick ($\text{jié}$): A wooden striking implement.

Why do these small instruments "resemble the myriad things" ($\text{sì wàn wù}$)$19

The characteristic of the myriad things is their immense variety, diverse forms, and specific functions. Heaven, Earth, sun, moon, and water constitute the grand framework of the cosmos; the myriad things fill in the details—flowers, insects, fish, birds, beasts, mountains, lakes, sand, and dust—infinite in variety and form.

The role of these small instruments in the ensemble is likewise—they are not the main players (the protagonists are the drum, bell, chime stone, wind instruments, qín, sè, song, and dance) but rather colorful supporting roles and embellishments. They are numerous in kind (wooden, leather, bamboo, etc.), with varied sounds (some crisp, some dull, some sharp), each with a special function (the zhù to start the music, the yǔ to stop it, the fǔ to support the drum's beat). Like the myriad things in relation to Heaven and Earth—Heaven and Earth are the grand framework, and the myriad things fill in the details, making it rich and colorful.

This correspondence reveals an important feature of Xunzi’s theory of acoustic imagery: completeness. Xunzi not only corresponds the main instruments to Heaven, Earth, Water, Sun, Moon, and Stars but also corresponds the secondary small instruments to the "myriad things," creating a complete correspondence between the lineage of musical instruments and the cosmological diagram. The cosmos contains Heaven, Earth, Water, Stars/Sun/Moon, and the Myriad Things—the ensemble contains the drum, bell, chime stone, wind instruments, and small instruments. Everything in the cosmos is mapped within the ensemble. The ensemble is a miniature cosmos.

Section 7: The Instrument Lineage and the Cosmological Diagram: A Holistic Analysis

Reviewing the correspondence established in the previous sections, the system constructed by Master Xunzi can be diagrammed as follows:

This system is constructed with rigorous logic:

First Level: Heaven—Drum. Heaven is the supreme, largest, and unifying entity of the cosmos. The drum is the supreme, largest, and unifying entity among instruments. Both are "sovereigns."

Second Level: Earth—Bell. Earth is the foundation, the bearer of all things. The bell is the foundation, the bearer of pitch. Both are "foundations."

Third Level: Water—Chime Stone. Water flows between Heaven and Earth, acting as a mediator and regulator. The chime stone interjects between the drum and bell, marking critical points—Water mediates between Heaven and Earth; the chime stone mediates between the drum and bell. Both are "intermediaries."

Fourth Level: Stars, Sun, Moon—Wind Instruments. These are the luminous bodies that illuminate the sky. The wind instruments are the bright voices of the ensemble, adding brilliance. Both are "illuminators."

Fifth Level: Myriad Things—Small Instruments. The myriad things fill the spaces between Heaven and Earth, providing richness and diversity. The small instruments fill out the ensemble, providing richness and color. Both are "substance/filling."

Five levels of correspondence, distinct in hierarchy, rigorous in logic. This is not arbitrary comparison but is based on profound "taking of imagery" ($\text{qǔ xiàng}$): by discerning the common characteristics shared between the qualities of the instruments and the qualities of the cosmic elements, an intrinsic link is established. This is a concrete demonstration of the pre-Qin thought of "Correspondence between Heaven and Man" ($\text{tiān rén xiāng yìng}$).

The Yijing, Great Treatise ($\text{Xì Cí}$), Second Part, states:

"The greatest virtue of Heaven and Earth is to give life; the greatest treasure of the Sage is his position ($\text{wèi}$). How is position maintained$20 By benevolence ($\text{rén}$). How are men gathered$21 By wealth ($\text{cái}$). To arrange wealth and correct speech, restraining men from wrongdoing, is righteousness ($\text{yì}$)."

The virtues of Heaven and Earth correspond to the governance of the Sage. Xunzi's "Imagery of Sound and Music" follows the same logic: the composition of the band corresponds to the structure of the cosmos. This shared thinking manifests in different domains.

We must now ask a more fundamental question: Is the correspondence between the instrument lineage and the cosmological diagram "natural" or "a human construction"$22 In other words, do the qualities of the instruments actually share intrinsic commonalities with the qualities of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things, or is this Master Xunzi’s imposed analogy$23

From the perspective of Xunzi’s thought, the answer is both. On one hand, Xunzi acknowledges that the qualities of instruments have a material basis—the leather sound is deep like Heaven’s vastness; the metal sound is rich like Earth’s substance; the stone sound is crisp like Water’s clarity—this is the "natural" correspondence ($\text{zì rán zhī xiāng tōng}$). On the other hand, systematically constructing this correspondence into a complete system is "human artifice" ($\text{rén wéi}$)—it is the wisdom of the Sages (the former kings) that created this cultural order.

This aligns perfectly with Xunzi’s core concept of "transforming nature and cultivating artifice" ($\text{huà xìng qǐ wěi}$): "Nature" ($\text{xìng}$) is the natural state; "Artifice" ($\text{wěi}$) is the human endeavor. The natural quality of the instrument is its "nature," while organizing it into an orderly ensemble corresponding to the cosmological diagram is "artifice." The greatness of the Sage lies in perceiving the "principle" ($\text{lǐ}$) contained within "nature" (natural qualities) and realizing it through "artifice" (human creation).