The Image of Music and Sound in Xunzi's 'On Music': A Study of Character, Cosmos, and the Cultivation of Rites and Music

Chapter Five: Ancient Perspectives: Musical Instruments, Mythology, Shamanism, and Sacrifice

Section 1: The Drum and Thunder — Mythological Tracing of Ancient Drums

We have already cited the myth of the Kui drum from the Classic of Mountains and Seas ($\text{Shān Hǎi Jīng}$). This section explores further the original meaning of the drum in ancient mythology and shamanistic traditions.

The connection between the drum and thunder is profoundly ingrained in ancient belief. Thunder is the sound of Heaven—Heaven is inherently silent, and only thunder is Heaven’s utterance. The drum is a human instrument—when humans wished to produce a sound like Heaven’s, only the drum could approximate it.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas, Classic of the Great Wilderness: East, records:

"In the Eastern Sea there is Mount Liubo, extending seven thousand li into the sea. On it is a beast shaped like an ox, with a dark body and no horns, possessing one foot. When it enters or leaves the water, there must be wind and rain. Its light is like the sun and moon, its sound like thunder ($\text{shēng rú léi}$), and its name is Kui. The Yellow Emperor obtained it and made a drum from its hide, using the bones of the thunder beast as the drumstick. Its sound could be heard five hundred li away, used to awe the world ($\text{yǐ wēi tiān xià}$)."

This myth details the structure precisely:

• Kui’s "sound is like thunder" ($\text{shēng rú léi}$)—Kui itself is an incarnation of thunder.
• "Made a drum from its hide"—the drum is a "domesticated thunder."
• "Using the bones of the thunder beast as the drumstick"—strengthening the link between drum and thunder.
• "Sound could be heard five hundred li away"—the drum sound travels far, like thunder.
• "Used to awe the world" ($\text{yǐ wēi tiān xià}$)—the drum’s function is to "awe"—to intimidate and rule.

This myth reveals the drum’s primordial significance: the drum is an artificial simulation of thunder. By creating the drum, humanity "transferred" Heaven’s thunder to the human world, thereby acquiring Heaven’s "awe" ($\text{wēi}$) power—the power of rule and deterrence. The drum’s "grand beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$) is precisely the grandeur and brilliance of thunder. The drum's resemblance to Heaven ($\text{sì tiān}$) has its most fundamental basis here—the drum’s sound resembles thunder, and thunder is the sound of Heaven, thus the drum resembles Heaven.

The Zhen Trigram ($\text{Zhèn}$, ☳) in the Yijing symbolizes Thunder. The Trigram statement says:

"Zhen brings success. When thunder comes, it is startling ($\text{jìng jìng}$); when laughter follows, it is full of joy ($\text{xiào yán yā yā}$). The shock resounds for a hundred li, yet the ritual wine ladle and cup ($\text{bǐ chàng}$) are not spilled."

"The shock resounds for a hundred li" ($\text{zhèn jìng bǎi lǐ}$)—This echoes the Kui drum’s sound heard five hundred li away. The phrase "the ritual wine ladle and cup are not spilled" implies that although thunder (drum) is startling, it occurs within the context of sacrifice—the drum’s function in sacrifice is to shock and awe, aligning with this text.

The Yijing, Great Treatise states:

"Beating the drum with thunder, moistening with wind and rain." ($\text{Gǔ zhī yǐ léi tíng, rùn zhī yǐ fēng yǔ}$)

Here, the verb "to beat" ($\text{gǔ}$) is used, meaning "to agitate with thunder and lightning." The "beating" ($\text{gǔ}$) (vibration, agitation) of thunder and lightning is one with the drum's "beating" (striking, vibration). At the linguistic level, "drum" and "thunder" are already unified.

In ancient shamanistic traditions, the drum was the foremost tool for connecting humans and spirits. Shamans beat the drum to communicate with the divine, to dispel evil spirits, and to summon souls. The Songs of Chu, "Hymns to the Great Unity of the Eastern Emperor" ($\text{Jiǔ Gē: Dōng Huáng Tài Yī}$), states:

"Raise the drumstick and strike the drum ($\text{yáng bāo xī fǔ gǔ}$), slow down the measure and chant serenely, arrange the yú and sè and chant grandly."

"Raising the drumstick and striking the drum" ($\text{yáng bāo xī fǔ gǔ}$) initiates the sacrifice to the Eastern Emperor—the drum leads the ritual music.

Furthermore, the Songs of Chu, "Lament for the Fallen" ($\text{Guó Shāng}$), describes a battle scene:

"Holding Wu spears and clad in rhinoceros armor... Drawing the jade drumstick and beating the resounding drum ($\text{yuán yù bāo xī jī míng gǔ}$)."

The drum’s function in war is to stimulate morale and unify action—precisely the demonstration of the drum’s "grand beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$) and its role as the "sovereign of music."

In conclusion, the primordial significance of the drum in ancient culture was:

1. An artificial simulation of Heaven’s thunder (Drum resembles Heaven).
2. A shamanistic tool for communicating with spirits (used in sacrifice).
3. A command signal unifying the masses (used in war and politics).

These three meanings perfectly align with Xunzi’s discussion of "grand beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$), "sovereign of music" ($\text{jūn xié}$), and "resembles Heaven" ($\text{sì tiān}$). Although Xunzi describes these using rational language, the deep structure is rooted in ancient mythology and shamanism.

Section 2: Bells and Earth Deities — Origins of Metal and Stone in Sacrifice

The bell’s "resemblance to Earth" ($\text{sì dì}$) also has deep roots in ancient culture.

Metal (copper, tin) is mined from underground. The invention of metallurgy was considered a world-altering event in antiquity. Guanzi ($\text{Guǎn Zǐ}$), Measuring Out ($\text{Kuí Dù}$), states:

"The mountain of Gelu erupted, and water followed. Chi You received it and forged it, making swords, armor, spears, and halberds."

The smelting of metals and the forging of weapons were linked in myth to culture heroes like Chi You. Metal extracted from the earth and refined into metal objects—the bell is formed from the essence of the Earth, artificially transformed. The bell is an artifact of Earth’s essence.

The Discourses of the States ($\text{Guó Yǔ}$), in the "Discourse of Zhou, Second Part" ($\text{Zhōu Yǔ Xià}$), records the musician Ling Zhoujiu discussing music:

"Metal and stone move them; silk and bamboo guide them; poetry expresses them; song chants them; gourd preaches them; clay supports them; leather and wood regulate them."

"Metal and stone move them" ($\text{jīn shí yǐ dòng zhī}$)—Metal (bell) and stone (chime stone) serve to "move" (initiate, propel) the music, ranking first among the instruments. The reverence for metal and stone stems from the rarity of their materials and the difficulty of their production—casting bells required advanced metallurgy and vast resources of copper and tin, unaffordable to minor lords. Thus, the bell was a "heavy vessel" ($\text{zhòng qì}$), spoken of alongside the tripod, symbolizing state authority.

The use of bells in sacrifices, especially to Earth deities ($\text{dì qì}$), is well-documented in pre-Qin texts. Rites of Zhou, Office of Music: Grand Master, records:

"Then they played the Yellow Bell ($\text{huáng zhōng}$), chanted the Great Lü ($\text{dà lǚ}$), and danced Yunmen, to sacrifice to the celestial spirits. Then they played the Tai Cu ($\text{tài cù}$), chanted the Answering Bell ($\text{yìng zhōng}$), and danced Xian Chi, to sacrifice to the Earth deities ($\text{jì dì shì}$)."

Sacrificing to the Earth deities ($\text{dì shì}$) involved playing the "Answering Bell" ($\text{yìng zhōng}$), using specific bell tunings. The close association between bell sounds and the rites for Earth spirits provides the cultural background for the bell "resembling Earth" ($\text{sì dì}$).

From the perspective of acoustic quality, the bell's deep and lingering sound possesses the aura of "Earth." Earth’s quality is depth, stability, and permanence. The bell sound is similar. The drum sound is grand but brief; the chime stone is crisp but fleeting. Only the bell is rich and sustained, with a resonance that can last for tens of seconds or more, like the unchanging nature of the Earth.

From a physical standpoint, metal possesses excellent resonance and ductility, making the bell’s sound exceptionally full and rounded. This sense of "fullness" matches Earth’s "deep virtue of carrying burdens" ($\text{hòu dé zài wù}$)—Earth carries all things with its substance; the bell carries the entire sonic spectrum of the ensemble with its substantial sound.

Section 3: Chime Stones and Water — Ancient Origins of Clear Stone Sounds

The chime stone’s "resemblance to water" ($\text{sì shuǐ}$) can be traced back to the Stone Age.

The earliest chime stones were natural slabs of rock—the ancients discovered that certain stone slabs produced clear, pleasing sounds when struck, leading them to fashion these into instruments. The Book of Documents, Yi Ji, records:

"Striking the ringing jade-chime ($\text{míng qiú}$), beating the drum, playing the qín and sè in order to chant."

"Ringing jade-chime" ($\text{míng qiú}$) is an ancient name for the chime stone, referring to a beautiful stone (jade). When struck, it "rings" ($\text{míng}$)—producing a crisp sound. This is one of the earliest records of the chime stone.

Furthermore, the Book of Documents, Yi Ji, states:

"Striking stone against stone ($\text{jī shí fǔ shí}$), the hundred beasts comply and dance."

"Striking stone against stone" ($\text{jī shí fǔ shí}$) refers to striking the stone chime stone, causing the "hundred beasts to dance" ($\text{bǎi shòu shuài wǔ}$). This passage describes an ancient sacrificial scene—using the sound of the stone chime stone to summon spirits (the hundred beasts symbolizing spirits or shamanic transformations) to dance to the sound. The stone chime stone was one of the most primal instruments in ancient sacrifice.

Why is the chime stone associated with water$1

From the perspective of sound quality, the crisp sound of stone indeed resembles the sound of flowing water. Water flowing over stones produces a ding-dong sound, very similar to the chime stone. The ancients perhaps linked the sound of stone with the sound of water.

From the perspective of ancient cosmology, stone (mountain) and water (marsh) were often paired opposites. In the Eight Trigrams, Gen ($\text{Gèn}$) is Mountain (Stone), and Dui ($\text{Duì}$) is Lake (Water). Mountains and lakes are mutually accessible—mountains contain springs, and lakes gather water flowing down from mountains. The chime stone, made of mountain stone, produces the sound of water, aligning with the interaction between Gen and Dui—hardness within softness, and softness within hardness.

The Book of Odes, Hymns of Shang ($\text{Shāng Sòng}$), Nà ($\text{Nà}$), states:

"Oh, how grand! We place the rattle drum ($\text{táo gǔ}$), play the rhythmic drum sounds, pleasing our illustrious ancestors as the descendant of Tang performs the ceremony. May our thoughts be fulfilled! The rattle drum sounds deep and low ($\text{yuān yuān}$), the flute sounds clear and high ($\text{huì huì}$ $\text{guǎn shēng}$). Both harmonious and level ($\text{jì hé qiě píng}$), we lean upon the sound of the chime stone ($\text{yī wǒ qìng shēng}$)."

"We lean upon the sound of the chime stone" ($\text{yī wǒ qìng shēng}$) suggests the chime stone sound acts as the foundation for a state that is "harmonious and level" ($\text{píng}$). This resonates with the chime stone "resembling water"—water’s quality is "levelness" ($\text{zhì liàng bì píng}$), and the chime stone’s sound is also "level" (the foundation for peace).

We must also note that the pre-Qin chime stone was used not only for music but also for marking time and administrative signaling. The Rites of Zhou, Office of Music: Chime Stone Master ($\text{Chūn Guān: Qìng Shī}$), details the duties of the Chime Stone Master. The chime stone’s crisp, clear sound has strong penetration, making it suitable for signaling—"the chime stone is used to mark the conclusion" ($\text{qìng yǐ jié zhǐ}$), meaning its clear sound marks the end of a section or a turning point, fitting the quality of "regulation" ($\text{zhì}$) and water’s tendency to stop ($\text{zhǐ}$) and form pools when it reaches a low point.

Section 4: Sheng, Yu, and Phoenix — Mythological Background of Reed Pipes

The "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) of the shēng, yú, and xiāo is closely associated with the phoenix in ancient mythology.

The structure of the shēng is said to imitate the spread wings of the phoenix. Legends (recorded in the Book of Documents, Transmitted Traditions ($\text{Shàng Shū Dà Zhuàn}$), though a later work, likely preserves pre-Qin tradition) suggest "Nuwa created the shēng and huáng." The arrangement of the shēng's bamboo pipes resembles the varied feathers of the phoenix’s wing; the vibration of its reeds produces a sound like the phoenix’s cry.

The Book of Odes, Minor Odes of the Kingdom, Deer Call ($\text{Lù Míng}$), states:

"The deer call 'you you' as they eat the artemisia. I have worthy guests, I strike the sè and blow the shēng."

"The deer call 'you you' as they eat the artemisia. I have worthy guests whose virtue is clearly known."

The "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) of the shēng sound is paired with the "you you" of the deer call and the "virtuous reputation" ($\text{dé yīn}$) of the guests, creating a harmonious picture of a feast. In poetic contexts, the "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) of the shēng is always linked to concord, friendliness, and joy.

The xiāo (panpipe) also has mythological origins. It is said to be the xiāo used in the legend of Emperor Shun, whose Shao Music ($\text{Sháo Yuè}$) played in nine movements ($\text{jiǔ chéng}$) caused the phoenix to appear in welcome: "The Shao Music performed its nine movements, and the phoenix came to pay its respects." ($\text{xiāo sháo jiǔ chéng, fèng huáng lái yí}$). This legend directly links the xiāo with the phoenix—the phoenix is the embodiment of harmony, and the xiāo's sound is the voice of harmony; they respond to each other.

What was the phoenix’s character in ancient belief$2 The phoenix’s virtue is "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) —its appearance signals peace and harmony throughout the world. The Classic of Mountains and Seas, Classic of the Southern Mountains ($\text{Nán Shān Jīng}$), describes it:

"There is a bird there, shaped like a rooster, with five-colored markings, named the Phoenix ($\text{Fèng Huáng}$). Its head marking is called Virtue, its wing marking Righteousness, its back marking Ritual, its breast marking Benevolence, its abdomen marking Trustworthiness. This bird feeds and sings naturally, dancing by itself. When it appears, the world is peaceful and ordered."

The phoenix embodies the five cardinal virtues, and its "singing and dancing naturally" signals world peace. The "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) of the shēng, yú, and xiāo is the manifestation of the phoenix’s "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) in musical instruments.

This ancient background means that the "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) of the yú, shēng, and xiāo is not just a description of musical aesthetics but also a carrier of the ideal of cosmic harmony—echoing the ancient aspiration for peace under heaven symbolized by the phoenix's arrival.

Section 5: Xun and Chi and Earth — Earth Instruments and Terrestrial Worship

The "expansive and ample" ($\text{wēng bó}$) quality of the xūn and chí is deeply connected to their material composition of fired earth.

The xūn is made of clay, one of the most primitive and simple instruments. Archaeological discoveries date the earliest ceramic xūn back thousands of years to the Neolithic Age. The xūn's material is earth, the essence of the Earth itself. Its sound—low, deep, vast, and archaic—is the sound of the Earth, the echo of antiquity.

The Yijing, Kun Trigram’s virtue is "richness" ($\text{hòu}$)—"Kun is rich and thick in carrying its burden." The xūn's sound, "expansive and ample" ($\text{wēng bó}$), matches Kun’s virtue of "richness" ($\text{hòu}$). The feeling evoked by the xūn is like standing on the vast earth, surrounded by open space, hearing a deep, distant call—it is the voice of the Earth itself.

In ancient shamanistic traditions, earth vessels held a special significance in sacrifice. Earth represents the Earth deity, and sacrificing to the Earth God with an object made of earth is the most direct way of "serving Earth with Earth." The xūn's deep, rich sound is suited for sacrificing to the Earth deity—an instrument made of Earth’s material, emitting Earth’s sound, offered to the Earth spirits.

The Philosopher Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals ($\text{Lǚ Shì Chūn Qiū}$), Ancient Music ($\text{Gǔ Yuè}$), describes the establishment of musical pitch:

"The Yellow Emperor commanded Ling Lun to compose the pitches ($\text{lǜ}$). Ling Lun journeyed west from Da Xia, then to the south of Ruan Yu, where he obtained bamboo from the Gap Valley ($\text{Xiè Gǔ}$). He selected sections of bamboo with appropriate thickness and hollowness, cut two segments about three inches and nine fen long, and blew into them, thus establishing the Palace pitch ($\text{huáng zhōng}$)."

Ling Lun established the pitches using bamboo tubes—bamboo marked the beginning of tube instruments. However, the ceramic xūn likely existed before the standardization of bamboo pitches. The simplicity and primitiveness of the xūn suggest its history might predate bamboo wind instruments. If bamboo instruments represent the refinement of civilization, the xūn represents civilization’s origin—the sound of the Earth, the sound of antiquity.

The "breadth" ($\text{bó}$) in "expansive and ample" ($\text{wēng bó}$) is particularly noteworthy. "Breadth" ($\text{bó}$) means extensive and vast—why is the xūn's sound "ample"$3 Because its timbre is low and deep, lacking high-frequency overtones (unlike metal or string instruments which have rich harmonics), its sound appears "broad"—like a large, undetailed block of color spread out to fill the entire space. This "breadth" is precisely $\text{bó}$—not fine or detailed, but vast and boundless.

Section 6: Qin and Se and Human Relations — The Civilizing Narrative of String Instruments

In ancient culture, the qín and sè were not just instruments but symbols of human relationships.

The pairing of qín and sè in pre-Qin poetry often symbolizes marital harmony. The Book of Odes, Airs of Zhou, Guan Ju ($\text{Guān Jū}$), states:

"The graceful, modest young lady, the qín and sè delight her." ($\text{yǎo tiǎo shū nǚ, qín sè yǒu zhī}$)

"Delight her with qín and sè" ($\text{qín sè yǒu zhī}$) uses the pairing of qín and sè to liken closeness and harmony with a modest lady.

The Book of Odes, Airs of Zheng ($\text{Zhèng Fēng}$), Nǚ Yuē Jī Míng ($\text{Nǚ Yuē Jī Míng}$), states:

"The qín and sè are being played; all is quiet and well." ($\text{qín sè zài yù, mò bù jìng hǎo}$)

"The qín and sè are being played, all is quiet and well" ($\text{qín sè zài yù, mò bù jìng hǎo}$)—the harmonious playing of qín and sè depicts the perfect state of marital bliss.

Furthermore, the Book of Odes, Minor Odes of the Kingdom, Chang Di ($\text{Cháng Dì}$), states:

"Wives and children blend well, like the striking of the sè and qín. When brothers are united, the harmony is deep and profound." ($\text{qī zǐ hǎo hé, rú gǔ sè qín. xiōng dì jì xī, hé lè qiě zhàn}$)

"Wives and children blend well, like the striking of the sè and qín" ($\text{qī zǐ hǎo hé, rú gǔ sè qín}$)—the harmony among wives and children is compared to the harmonious performance of the sè and qín.

Why could the qín and sè symbolize spousal harmony$4

From a qualitative perspective, the qín's "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$, gentle and graceful) and the sè's "easily good" ($\text{yì liáng}$, mild and kind) are complementary—one soft, one warm, mutually supporting, like husband and wife—one gentle, one benevolent.

From a performance perspective, the qín and sè are often played together, one player on the qín and another on the sè, their sounds intertwining and responding to each other, like a dialogue between husband and wife—a phrase from one followed by a response from the other.

From a cultural perspective, the making and teaching of the qín and sè carried sacred overtones. Tradition holds that Fuxi created the qín, and Shennong created the sè—both were creations of Sage Kings. The sound of the qín and sè was not merely pleasant but also served to cultivate the self and communicate with the divine.

Xunzi assigns the qín the quality of "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$) and the sè the quality of "easily good" ($\text{yì liáng}$). This distinction is telling. If we compare the qín and sè to a married couple: the qín is the "female" ($\text{fù}$), embodying feminine virtue ($\text{fù dé}$); the sè is the "easily good" ($\text{yì liáng}$), implying the masculine quality of peace and openness ("straightforward and open" ($\text{tǎn tǎn duò duò}$) is an aspect of $\text{yì}$).

Why did the ancients distinguish the qín as Yin and the sè as Yang$5

Structurally, the qín has fewer strings (five or seven) and the sè has more (twenty-five or more). Few strings are Yin; many strings are Yang—the qín's fewer strings are Yin; the sè's greater number of strings are Yang. Tonally, the qín's sound is subtle and reserved (Yin); the sè's sound is mild and expansive (Yang). In performance technique, the qín requires subtle fingerwork (Yin), while the sè performance is generally more sweeping and grand (Yang).

This Yin-Yang pairing allows the qín and sè ensemble to achieve perfect "harmony" ($\text{hé}$)—the mutual complementation of Yin and Yang, the balance of hard and soft, movement and stillness—just like the harmony between husband and wife.

Section 7: Song and Dance and Shamanism — Ancient Roots in Ritual Performance

In ancient culture, song and dance were the core components of shamanistic practice ($\text{wū xí huó dòng}$).

The character for shaman, wū ($\text{巫}$), in its Oracle Bone script form shows two crossed tools, symbolizing the shaman’s body communicating between Heaven and Earth. The Shuowen Jiezi defines wū as "the ritual official" ($\text{zhù}$), adding: "The female who can serve the formless, descending the spirits through dance ($\text{yǐ wǔ jiàng shén}$)." This highlights the intrinsic link between wū and wǔ—the shaman descends spirits through dance. "Shaman" ($\text{wū}$) and "Dance" ($\text{wǔ}$) may share a common origin—the shaman uses dance to summon spirits and connect Heaven and Man.

The eleven pieces in the Songs of Chu ($\text{Chǔ Cí}$), "Hymns of the Nine Heavens" ($\text{Jiǔ Gē}$), are all lyrics for shamanistic sacrificial songs and dances. The integration of song and dance is ubiquitous in these texts:

The "Hymns to the Great Unity of the Eastern Emperor" ($\text{Jiǔ Gē: Dōng Huáng Tài Yī}$) describes the sacrifice to the highest deity:

"On an auspicious day and at a fine hour, we joyfully approach the Supreme Ruler. We grasp the long sword with jade pommels, the bells chime sweetly in the dark, the jade mats are adorned with jade rests, and we grasp the fragrant blossoms. The orchid-scented stew steams, the moss mats are spread, we offer cinnamon wine and peppered liquor. Raise the drumstick and strike the drum ($\text{yáng bāo xī fǔ gǔ}$), slow down the measure and chant serenely ($\text{shū huǎn jié xī ān gē}$), arrange the yú and sè and chant grandly ($\text{chén yú sè xī hào chàng}$). The spirits squat gracefully in beautiful robes, their fragrance fills the hall. The five notes mingle and converge, the Lord is joyful and at ease in his peace ($\text{jūn xīn xīn xī lè kāng}$)."

This section describes the ritual: striking the drum (drum’s "grand beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$)), chanting serenely with a slow rhythm (song’s "purity" ($\text{qīng}$)), arranging the yú and sè in grand song (harmony of yú and sè), and the spirits appearing gracefully in beautiful robes—the shaman dancing ($\text{jiāo fú}$), symbolizing the dance’s ultimate intent ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$). The entire description corresponds perfectly to Xunzi's system of "Imagery of Sound and Music."

The "Hymns to the Lord of the Clouds" ($\text{Jiǔ Gē: Yún Zhōng Jūn}$) describes summoning the cloud spirit:

"Bathing in orchid water and washing with fragrance, wearing splendid robes like the ying flower. The spirit curls up and remains here, its splendor shining endlessly... I think of my Lord and sigh, my heart laboring in sorrow."

The song and dance are meant to summon the cloud spirit to descend—"The spirit descends gracefully" ($\text{líng huáng huáng xī jì jiàng}$). The function of song and dance is to "bring down the spirit" ($\text{jiàng shén}$)—to cause the divine to descend from the celestial realm to the human world.

This ancient tradition provides the cultural background for "Song is purely exhaustive" ($\text{gē qīng jìn}$) and "Dance combines the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{wǔ yì tiān dào jiān}$):

Song’s "purity and exhaustion" ($\text{qīng jìn}$): The shaman’s song must be clear and pure to reach the divine ear. If the song were muddy, the spirits would not descend. "Purity" ($\text{qīng}$) is the primary quality required for sound to communicate with the divine. "Exhaustion" ($\text{jìn}$) is the ultimate fulfillment of function—exhausting the sincerity of the human heart to move the spirits.

Dance’s "combining the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$): The shaman’s dance uses the body to interpret the Dao of Heaven, simulating the operation of Heaven and Earth, and presenting the order of the cosmos. In the dance, the shaman is not "performing" the Dao but "communing with the spirit" ($\text{tōng líng}$)—using the body as a medium to connect Heaven and Man. This is the original meaning of "combining the intent of the Dao of Heaven"—the purpose of dance is to encompass the Dao of Heaven.

From the perspective of ancient shamanism, "The Imagery of Sound and Music" describes not just general musical aesthetics but a complete sacrificial cosmos—the drum sound like Heavenly thunder to communicate with Heaven; the bell sound like Earth to sacrifice to Earth deities; the chime stone sound like flowing water to revere water spirits; the wind instruments resembling stars, sun, and moon to correspond to celestial phenomena; the xūn sound like the Earth’s breath to praise the Earth Mother; the qín and sè symbolizing marital harmony to recount human relations; the pure and exhaustive song to reach the divine ear; and the dance encompassing the Dao of Heaven to connect with the divine. The entire ensemble constitutes a miniature altar, and the entire performance is a miniature sacrifice.

Xunzi, though he rephrased this tradition using rational language, retained traces of this ancient shamanistic ritualistic background. This is not an accidental residue but the foundation of culture—the root of rites and music lies in sacrifice, and the root of sacrifice lies in shamanism, which in turn lies in the communication between Heaven and Man. Xunzi’s "Imagery of Sound and Music" is a rationalized inheritance and sublimation of this foundation.

Section 8: The "Eight Tones" and the "Eight Directions" — Cosmic Correspondence in Instrument Materials

The pre-Qin classification of the "Eight Tones" ($\text{bā yīn}$)—metal, stone, earth, leather, silk, wood, gourd, and bamboo—is not just a categorization of instrument materials but also embodies cosmological significance.

"Eight" ($\text{bā}$) was an important number in pre-Qin culture. The eight directions (East, West, South, North, Southeast, Southwest, Northeast, Northwest), the eight trigrams (Qian, Kun, Zhen, Xun, Kan, Li, Gen, Dui), and the eight tones (metal, stone, earth, leather, silk, wood, gourd, bamboo)—all use "eight" as the framework to encompass the entirety of existence.

The Rites of Zhou, Office of Music: Grand Master, records:

"All are spread forth by the Eight Tones: metal, stone, earth, leather, silk, wood, gourd, and bamboo."

The classification of the eight tones by material—what material an instrument is made of determines which "tone" it belongs to—is based on the philosophical presupposition that material determines character—instruments made of different materials possess different timbres, different qualities, and correspond to different cosmic elements.

Metal (Bell category): Derived from subterranean ores, refined by smelting, hard and heavy, sound is deep and substantial. The virtue of metal is "hardness" ($\text{gāng}$) and "substantiality" ($\text{shí}$).

Stone (Chime Stone category): Natural mineral, shaped without smelting, sound is crisp and sharp. The virtue of stone is "firmness" ($\text{jiān}$) and "clarity" ($\text{qīng}$).

Earth (Xun category): The essence of the soil, molded and fired, sound is low and deep. The virtue of earth is "richness" ($\text{hòu}$) and "primitiveness" ($\text{pǔ}$).

Leather (Drum category): Derived from animal hide, stretched over a frame, struck by a mallet to produce sound, sound is grand and deep. The virtue of leather is "grandness" ($\text{dà}$) and "movement" ($\text{dòng}$).

Silk (Qin/Se category): Derived from silkworms, used as strings on the qín and sè, plucked to produce sound, sound is gentle and beautiful. The virtue of silk is "softness" ($\text{róu}$) and "beauty" ($\text{měi}$).

Wood (Zhù/Yǔ category): From trees, used to make square or tiger-shaped percussion instruments, sound produced by striking. The virtue of wood is "simplicity" ($\text{pǔ}$) and "straightness" ($\text{zhí}$).

Gourd (Sheng/Yu category): The fruit of the gourd, used as the chamber for the shēng, with bamboo reeds inserted, sound produced by blowing. The virtue of gourd is "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) and "roundness" ($\text{yuán}$).

Bamboo (Xiao, Guan, Yue, Chi category): Grows upright with nodes, hollowed out into tubes, sound produced by blowing. The virtue of bamboo is "straightness" ($\text{zhí}$) and "brightness" ($\text{liàng}$).

The eight materials—metal, stone, earth, leather, silk, wood, gourd, bamboo—cover the main material types in the natural world: minerals (metal, stone), soil (earth), animal products (leather, silk), and plant products (wood, gourd, bamboo). Instruments made from these eight materials produce eight different qualities of sound, forming a complete sonic universe.

This is the cosmological foundation of "The Imagery of Sound and Music"—instruments are made from natural materials, and their sonic qualities are determined by the natural qualities of those materials; therefore, the sounds of the instruments naturally correspond to the elements of Heaven and Earth ($\text{tiān dì}$), the myriad things. This is not an arbitrary parallel construction but a natural affinity arising from the inherent connection between things.