The Image of Music and Sound in Xunzi's 'On Music': A Study of Character, Cosmos, and the Cultivation of Rites and Music

Section 7: Song and Dance and Shamanism — Ancient Roots in Ritual Performance

In ancient culture, song and dance were the core components of shamanistic practice ($\text{wū xí huó dòng}$).

The character for shaman, wū ($\text{巫}$), in its Oracle Bone script form shows two crossed tools, symbolizing the shaman’s body communicating between Heaven and Earth. The Shuowen Jiezi defines wū as "the ritual official" ($\text{zhù}$), adding: "The female who can serve the formless, descending the spirits through dance ($\text{yǐ wǔ jiàng shén}$)." This highlights the intrinsic link between wū and wǔ—the shaman descends spirits through dance. "Shaman" ($\text{wū}$) and "Dance" ($\text{wǔ}$) may share a common origin—the shaman uses dance to summon spirits and connect Heaven and Man.

The eleven pieces in the Songs of Chu ($\text{Chǔ Cí}$), "Hymns of the Nine Heavens" ($\text{Jiǔ Gē}$), are all lyrics for shamanistic sacrificial songs and dances. The integration of song and dance is ubiquitous in these texts:

The "Hymns to the Great Unity of the Eastern Emperor" ($\text{Jiǔ Gē: Dōng Huáng Tài Yī}$) describes the sacrifice to the highest deity:

"On an auspicious day and at a fine hour, we joyfully approach the Supreme Ruler. We grasp the long sword with jade pommels, the bells chime sweetly in the dark, the jade mats are adorned with jade rests, and we grasp the fragrant blossoms. The orchid-scented stew steams, the moss mats are spread, we offer cinnamon wine and peppered liquor. Raise the drumstick and strike the drum ($\text{yáng bāo xī fǔ gǔ}$), slow down the measure and chant serenely ($\text{shū huǎn jié xī ān gē}$), arrange the yú and sè and chant grandly ($\text{chén yú sè xī hào chàng}$). The spirits squat gracefully in beautiful robes, their fragrance fills the hall. The five notes mingle and converge, the Lord is joyful and at ease in his peace ($\text{jūn xīn xīn xī lè kāng}$)."

This section describes the ritual: striking the drum (drum’s "grand beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$)), chanting serenely with a slow rhythm (song’s "purity" ($\text{qīng}$)), arranging the yú and sè in grand song (harmony of yú and sè), and the spirits appearing gracefully in beautiful robes—the shaman dancing ($\text{jiāo fú}$), symbolizing the dance’s ultimate intent ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$). The entire description corresponds perfectly to Xunzi's system of "Imagery of Sound and Music."

The "Hymns to the Lord of the Clouds" ($\text{Jiǔ Gē: Yún Zhōng Jūn}$) describes summoning the cloud spirit:

"Bathing in orchid water and washing with fragrance, wearing splendid robes like the ying flower. The spirit curls up and remains here, its splendor shining endlessly... I think of my Lord and sigh, my heart laboring in sorrow."

The song and dance are meant to summon the cloud spirit to descend—"The spirit descends gracefully" ($\text{líng huáng huáng xī jì jiàng}$). The function of song and dance is to "bring down the spirit" ($\text{jiàng shén}$)—to cause the divine to descend from the celestial realm to the human world.

This ancient tradition provides the cultural background for "Song is purely exhaustive" ($\text{gē qīng jìn}$) and "Dance combines the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{wǔ yì tiān dào jiān}$):

Song’s "purity and exhaustion" ($\text{qīng jìn}$): The shaman’s song must be clear and pure to reach the divine ear. If the song were muddy, the spirits would not descend. "Purity" ($\text{qīng}$) is the primary quality required for sound to communicate with the divine. "Exhaustion" ($\text{jìn}$) is the ultimate fulfillment of function—exhausting the sincerity of the human heart to move the spirits.

Dance’s "combining the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$): The shaman’s dance uses the body to interpret the Dao of Heaven, simulating the operation of Heaven and Earth, and presenting the order of the cosmos. In the dance, the shaman is not "performing" the Dao but "communing with the spirit" ($\text{tōng líng}$)—using the body as a medium to connect Heaven and Man. This is the original meaning of "combining the intent of the Dao of Heaven"—the purpose of dance is to encompass the Dao of Heaven.

From the perspective of ancient shamanism, "The Imagery of Sound and Music" describes not just general musical aesthetics but a complete sacrificial cosmos—the drum sound like Heavenly thunder to communicate with Heaven; the bell sound like Earth to sacrifice to Earth deities; the chime stone sound like flowing water to revere water spirits; the wind instruments resembling stars, sun, and moon to correspond to celestial phenomena; the xūn sound like the Earth’s breath to praise the Earth Mother; the qín and sè symbolizing marital harmony to recount human relations; the pure and exhaustive song to reach the divine ear; and the dance encompassing the Dao of Heaven to connect with the divine. The entire ensemble constitutes a miniature altar, and the entire performance is a miniature sacrifice.

Xunzi, though he rephrased this tradition using rational language, retained traces of this ancient shamanistic ritualistic background. This is not an accidental residue but the foundation of culture—the root of rites and music lies in sacrifice, and the root of sacrifice lies in shamanism, which in turn lies in the communication between Heaven and Man. Xunzi’s "Imagery of Sound and Music" is a rationalized inheritance and sublimation of this foundation.