The Image of Music and Sound in Xunzi's 'On Music': A Study of Character, Cosmos, and the Cultivation of Rites and Music

Chapter Six: The Confucian Perspective: Music Theory and Governance by Ritual

Section 1: The Intellectual Lineage of Xunzi's Music Theory

Master Xunzi’s On Music did not arise in a vacuum but inherited a profound Confucian tradition.

Master Kong deeply loved music, and his evaluations and discussions of music are scattered throughout the Analects ($\text{Lún Yǔ}$):

"While in Qi, the Master heard the Shao Music, and for three months did not know the taste of meat. He said, 'I did not think that music could reach such heights!'" (Analects, Shū Er)

Confucius, upon hearing the Shao Music in Qi, lost the taste of meat for three months (an expression of deep absorption), remarking, "I never imagined music could reach such a level!" This use of "reach such heights" ($\text{zhì sī}$) echoes Xunzi’s discussion of "combining the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$)—that the ultimate state of music can encompass the Dao of Heaven.

"The Master said of the Shao: 'It is perfectly beautiful ($\text{jìn měi}$), and moreover perfectly good ($\text{jìn shàn}$). As for the Wu Music, it is perfectly beautiful, but not perfectly good.'" (Analects, Bā Yì)

Master Kong judged the Shao Music as "perfectly beautiful and perfectly good," and the Wu Music as "perfectly beautiful, but not perfectly good." The use of "perfect/exhaustive" ($\text{jìn}$) here resonates with Xunzi’s "song is purely exhaustive" ($\text{qīng jìn}$), meaning completeness or totality. This is the pursuit of the highest state.

"The Master said: 'It is inspired by the Odes ($\text{shī}$), established by Rites ($\text{lǐ}$), and perfected by Music ($\text{yuè}$)'." (Analects, Tài Bó)

"Perfected by Music" ($\text{chéng yú yuè}$)—the final perfection of character is achieved through music. This places music above rites—rites "establish" ($\text{lì}$) norms, while music "perfects" ($\text{chéng}$) character. Xunzi’s On Music systematically expands upon this judgment—explaining how music can "perfect" man.

Furthermore:

"The Master said: 'Do rites ($\text{lǐ}$) merely mean jade and silk$6 Does music ($\text{yuè}$) merely mean bells and drums$7'" (Analects, Yáng Huò)

Confucius pointed out that rites are not merely external forms like jade and silk, and music is not merely external sounds like bells and drums. The essence of rites is reverence ($\text{jīng jīng}$), and the essence of music is harmony ($\text{hé}$). This insight provides the methodological basis for Xunzi’s "Imagery of Sound and Music"—exploring the "imagery" ($\text{xiàng}$) of sound and music means delving into its inner character beyond the external forms of bells and drums.

Another crucial dimension of Confucius’s musical theory relates music to politics. The Analects, in Duke Ling of Wei ($\text{Wèi Líng Gōng}$), records:

"Yan Hui asked about governing. The Master said: 'Follow the calendar of Xia, use the chariots of Yin, wear the caps of Zhou, and for music, use the Shao Dance. Banish the music of Zheng, and keep away flatterers. The music of Zheng is licentious, and flatterers are dangerous. Licentiousness leads to ruin.'"

"Banish the music of Zheng" ($\text{fàng Zhèng shēng}$)—Reject the music of Zheng (considered licentious and decadent). "For music, use the Shao Dance" ($\text{yuè zé Sháo Wǔ}$)—Music must be the Shao Music and Dance. This demonstrates that the choice of music is a major political decision—whether to employ righteous music or decadent music affects the governance of the state.

Xunzi’s On Music inherits and develops Confucius’s theory. Its core arguments can be summarized as:

1. Music is an inevitability of human nature—man cannot be without music.
2. Music has good and evil distinctions—good music cultivates the heart; evil music corrupts the heart.
3. The former kings created the music of Ya and Song to guide man—using good music to guide natural human desires.
4. Music and Rites complement each other—Rites delineate differences ($\text{bié yì}$), while Music unifies ($\text{hé tóng}$).

This forms the basic framework of Confucian musical theory. The passage "The Imagery of Sound and Music" provides a detailed description of the specific qualities that "Good Music" ($\text{shàn yuè}$) or the sounds of Ya and Song ($\text{yǎ sòng zhī shēng}$) should possess—dà lì, tǒng shí, lián zhì... up to yì tiān dào jiān—all represent the characteristics required of "Good Music."

Section 2: "Music Unifies, Rites Delineate Differences" ($\text{yuè hé tóng, lǐ bié yì}$) — The Social Function of Sound and Music

Master Xunzi's most incisive statement on the social function of music appears in Xunzi: On Music:

"Music ($\text{yuè}$) is that which is unchangeably harmonious ($\text{hé tóng}$). Rites ($\text{lǐ}$) are that which is immutably ordered ($\text{lǐ zhī bù kě yì zhě}$). Music unifies ($\text{hé tóng}$); Rites delineate differences ($\text{bié yì}$). The governance of Rites and Music controls the human heart." (Xunzi, Yue Lun)

"Music unifies, Rites delineate differences" ($\text{yuè hé tóng, lǐ bié yì}$)—The function of music is to bring about unity and harmony among people; the function of rites is to establish differentiation and distinction of ranks. They complement each other in governing the human heart.

This insight provides a sociological lens through which to view the "Imagery of Sound and Music." The qualities ascribed to the twelve instruments/activities are not merely aesthetic descriptions but also symbolic representations of social functions:

The drum's "grand beauty" ($\text{dà lì}$) — the sublimity of the ruler. "Is not the drum the sovereign of music$8" ($\text{gǔ qí yuè zhī jūn xié}$)$9 The drum is the sovereign of music, just as the ruler is the sovereign of the state. The drum’s quality is that of the ideal ruler—sublime, brilliant, governing everything while maintaining dignity.

The bell’s "comprehensive substantiality" ($\text{tǒng shí}$) — the solid dependability of ministers. The bell is the foundation of music, like the pillars of the state. The bell’s quality is that of the ideal administrator—unifying factions while possessing inner substance.

The chime stone’s "purity and regulation" ($\text{lián zhì}$) — the clear strictness of the law. The chime stone regulates the music, like laws regulate the state. Its quality is that of ideal law—upright, pure, and measured.

The yú, shēng, and xiāo's "harmony" ($\text{hé}$) — the social harmony among various classes. The multi-pipe coordination mirrors the harmonious coexistence of different social strata.

The guǎn and yuè's "fierce emission" ($\text{fā měng}$) — the vigor of the individual. The singular, strong assertion of the single pipe mirrors individual striving and initiative.

The xūn and chí's "expansive and ample" ($\text{wēng bó}$) — the depth of culture. The deep, broad sound reflects the profound accumulation of cultural heritage.

The sè's "easily good" ($\text{yì liáng}$) — the mildness of the populace. The gentle and kind sound mirrors the simple and benevolent nature of the common people.

The qín's "pleasantly feminine" ($\text{fù hǎo}$) — the refinement of virtue. The subtle and beautiful sound mirrors the gentle and modest virtue of the refined person.

Song's "purity and exhaustion" ($\text{qīng jìn}$) — the uprightness of discourse. The clear and complete sound mirrors sincere and upright speech.

Dance's "combining the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$) — the peace under Heaven. Encompassing the Dao’s intent, it mirrors the ultimate state of universal concord.

Thus, the "Imagery of Sound and Music" is not just an aesthetic description but a miniature political ideal—every quality corresponds to an aspect of the ideal society. The entire ensemble is a microcosm of the ideal state, possessing a ruler, ministers, officials, populace, clear discourse, and ultimate peace.

Xunzi: On Music explicitly states this correspondence:

"Thus, music is the greatest harmony of the world, the standard of central balance ($\text{zhōng hé}$), and an inevitability of human feeling. Therefore, the Sages created literature ($\text{wén}$) to express it, making its sound sufficient for enjoyment without running to excess, its forms sufficient for distinction without becoming harsh, and its changes in pitch, complexity, clarity, texture, rhythm, and tempo sufficient to move the good heart of man, so that evil and corrupting influences have no way to make contact."

The qualities described in "The Imagery of Sound and Music"—dà lì, tǒng shí, lián zhì, hé, fā měng, etc.—are the concrete manifestations of "changes in pitch, complexity, clarity, texture, rhythm, and tempo" that are "sufficient to move the good heart of man." This is the precise method by which the former kings established music—to cultivate the good tendencies within human nature, ensuring that "evil and corrupting influences have no way to make contact." This is a strategy of "driving out evil with good," rather than merely prohibiting evil music (Mozi’s method), by saturating the heart with the virtues of good music, leaving no room for the qualities of decadent music.

Section 4: The Resonance between Record of Music and Xunzi's Theory

The Book of Rites: Record of Music ($\text{Lǐ Jì: Yuè Jì}$) is a major compilation of pre-Qin musical theory, and its ideas resonate closely with Xunzi’s On Music.

The Record of Music discusses the qualities of sound and music:

"Thus, when earth is depleted, grass and trees do not grow; when water is agitated, fish and tortoises do not grow large; when qi decays, the generation of things ceases; when the world is in disorder, rites become treacherous and music licentious. Therefore, its sound is sorrowful but not stately, joyful but insecure, slow and easy, violating the measures, flowing in excess and forgetting the foundation. If broad, it allows infiltration of villainy; if narrow, it cultivates desire. It is stimulated by the unrestrained qi and extinguishes the virtue of peace. Therefore, the gentleman despises it."

This passage describes the qualities of "music in times of disorder" ($\text{luàn zhī yuè}$): "sorrowful but not stately," "joyful but insecure," "slow and easy, violating the measures," "flowing in excess and forgetting the foundation"—all negative qualities. In stark contrast, the qualities described in Xunzi’s "Imagery of Sound and Music"—dà lì, tǒng shí, lián zhì, hé, fā měng, wēng bó, etc.—are all positive qualities. The two passages, one describing the positive, the other the negative, form a complete contrast: the qualities of good music (described by Xunzi) versus the qualities of evil music (described in the Record of Music), corresponding to order and chaos in the world.

The Record of Music further states:

"Great Music corresponds in harmony with Heaven and Earth; Great Rites correspond in measure with Heaven and Earth."

"Great Music corresponds in harmony with Heaven and Earth" ($\text{dà yuè yǔ tiān dì tóng hé}$)—the highest music shares the same harmony as Heaven and Earth. This maxim is the keynote for Xunzi’s cosmological correspondence—the reason why instruments can be mapped to Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things is precisely because "Great Music corresponds in harmony with Heaven and Earth"—music and the cosmic order share an identical structure of harmony.

Section 5: Musical Instruction and Civilizing the People — The Educational Intent of the Imagery

Xunzi’s assertion regarding the civilizing function of music is explicit:

"Thus, the entry of sound and music into man is deep, and its transformation of man is fast. Therefore, the former kings carefully composed its literature. When music is balanced, the people are harmonious and not dissolute; when music is solemn and stately, the people are orderly and not chaotic. When the people are harmonious and orderly, their armies are strong and their cities secure, and neighboring states dare not encroach upon them." (Xunzi, On Music)

"The entry of sound and music into man is deep, and its transformation of man is fast" ($\text{shēng yuè zhī rù rén yě shēn, qí huà rén yě sù}$)—The depth of music’s penetration into the human heart and the speed at which it changes people surpass other means. This judgment reveals the unique advantage of music education—it does not persuade through rational argument (like verbal instruction) or compel through external force (like legal punishment), but directly inspires emotion to change the heart. When people hear the solemn sound of the drum, they do not need to "understand" its meaning or "judge" its correctness; reverence naturally arises. This is why it "enters deep" ($\text{rù rén yě shēn}$) —it bypasses the rational intermediary and directly accesses the core of emotion.

Furthermore, music possesses a collective power of infection. A verbal teaching can only be one-to-one; the issuance of a law, though public, relies on specific enforcement. Music, however, can affect hundreds or thousands simultaneously. As Xunzi states, "When music is performed in the ancestral temple, the ruler and ministers, the high and the low, listen together, and none is not harmonious and respectful." The key is "listen together" ($\text{tóng tīng zhī}$)—hearing the same music simultaneously, being moved by the same emotion simultaneously. This is the collective power of music, explaining why it "transforms fast" ($\text{huà rén yě sù}$).

Finally, music engages the entire sensory apparatus. Speech primarily engages hearing (requiring comprehension); law primarily engages intellect. Music engages hearing (the sound), sight (the dance), kinesthesia (the unconscious bodily rhythm), and even touch (feeling the vibration of low-frequency drums). Sensory engagement on all levels gives music a power that surpasses means relying on a single sense.

The Record of Music states:

"Music is that which is an unchangeable aspect of feeling ($\text{qíng}$)."

The reason sound and music "feel deep and transform fast" is that they touch the most fundamental aspect of human emotion—that primal core preceding rationality, judgment, and all cultural constructs.

Section 5: "Sound and Music Imagery" and the Thought of "Rectifying Names" ($\text{zhèng míng}$)

Master Xunzi is famous for his doctrine of "Rectifying Names" ($\text{zhèng míng}$), systematically discussed in the chapter On Names ($\text{Zhèng Míng}$). The passage "Imagery of Sound and Music" can be seen as the application of "Rectifying Names" in the field of music.

Xunzi, On Names states:

"Names have no inherent appropriateness; agreement through designation, conformity to custom, is called appropriateness. If it differs from the designation, it is called inappropriateness. Names have no inherent substance; designation with names corresponding to substance, agreement with custom, is called a proper name ($\text{shí míng}$)."

A "name" (language, concept) has no inherent correctness; it is established through social agreement. However, once this agreement is successful, a stable relationship is forged between the "name" and the "substance" (the thing or phenomenon).

The "Imagery of Sound and Music" does precisely this: it establishes a precise "name" (the descriptive quality) for the "substance" (the actual acoustic character) of each type of sound and music—calling the drum "Grandly Beautiful" ($\text{dà lì}$), the bell "Comprehensively Substantial" ($\text{tǒng shí}$), the chime stone "Pure and Regulated" ($\text{lián zhì}$), and so on, naming each quality precisely. This naming process is extremely difficult—how can the essence of a drum sound be fully captured by just two words$10 Yet, Xunzi’s concise terms indeed capture the core characteristic of each instrument's quality. This is the work of "Rectifying Names"—using the most appropriate name to designate the most real substance.

Furthermore, viewed on a deeper level, the "Rectification of Names" in "Imagery of Sound and Music" is prescriptive, not just descriptive. When Xunzi says "The drum is grandly beautiful" ($\text{gǔ dà lì}$), he is not just describing the actual sound quality, but also stipulating the should-be quality—the drum sound ought to be grandly beautiful. If a drum sound is small and crude, it is not a good drum. When Xunzi says "song is purely exhaustive" ($\text{gē qīng jìn}$), he is setting a standard—song ought to be pure and complete; if the song is muddy and incomplete, it is not good song.

This is the deeper intention of Confucian "Rectifying Names"—it is not merely a tool for cognition but also a means of regulation. By establishing the correct name for a thing (the quality-name, like $\text{dà lì}$ or $\text{tǒng shí}$), a standard for that thing is simultaneously established—the standard for a good drum is "grand beauty," the standard for a good bell is "comprehensive substantiality." This is the rectification of names for sound and music, which also constitutes the rectification of standards for sound and music.