The Image of Music and Sound in Xunzi's 'On Music': A Study of Character, Cosmos, and the Cultivation of Rites and Music

Chapter Nine: Music and the Body: The Deeper Philosophy of Dance Theory

Section 1: The Body as the Medium of Rites and Music

In pre-Qin thought, the body is not merely a physical entity but also the medium for Rites and Music ($\text{Lǐ Yuè}$), the vessel for morality, and the bridge connecting Heaven and Man.

The Book of Rites: Record of Music ($\text{Lǐ Jì: Yuè Jì}$) states:

"By achieving music to govern the heart, the easy, upright, straightforward, and sincere heart is made to arise spontaneously. When the easy, upright, straightforward, and sincere heart arises, there is joy. Joy leads to tranquility, tranquility leads to longevity, longevity leads to alignment with Heaven, and alignment with Heaven leads to the spiritual. The spiritual speaks without words yet inspires trust, and wields awe without anger. This is the governance of the heart through music."

"Governing the heart through music" ($\text{zhì yuè yǐ zhì xīn}$) must be achieved through the body—the sounds of music enter the heart through the ears, and the rhythm of music is internalized through bodily movement (dance) as the order of the heart. The body is the conduit through which music enters the heart.

Xunzi’s theory of dance places the body at the core of ritual and musical education. "Regulating bending and stretching, rising and falling, advancing and retreating, slowing and hastening" ($\text{zhì fǔ yǎng, qū xìn, jìn tuì, chí sù}$) are the concrete implementation of Rites and Music on the physical plane. The dancer's body is not a free body but one regulated by Rites and Music—every movement has a prescribed manner, prescribed rhythm, and prescribed force.

However, this regulation is not oppression. Xunzi emphasizes: "The eyes do not see themselves, the ears do not hear themselves"—in the highest state, the dancer does not consciously control the body; the body moves correctly on its own, naturally. This means the regulation of Rites and Music has become the body’s "second nature"—not external coercion but internal spontaneity.

This is the manifestation of "transforming nature and cultivating artifice" ($\text{huà xìng qǐ wěi}$) on the physical level. The natural body ("nature," $\text{xìng}$) is chaotic—flailing hands and feet without structure. Through the training of Rites and Music ("artifice," $\text{wěi}$), the body gradually becomes orderly—rising and falling are measured, bending and stretching are regulated, advancing and retreating are methodical, speed is controlled. When this training reaches its zenith, orderly bodily movements flow out naturally without conscious control—this is the completion of "transforming nature" ($\text{huà xìng}$).

Section 2: "Not Seeing Oneself," "Not Hearing Oneself," and Self-Cultivation

The state of "not seeing oneself, not hearing oneself" ($\text{bù zì jiàn, bù zì wén}$) has deep significance within the Confucian tradition of self-cultivation.

The Analects records Confucius’s saying:

"If in the morning I hear the Dao, I can die content in the evening." (Analects, Li Ren)

"Hearing the Dao" ($\text{wén dào}$) here does not mean auditory hearing but apprehension of the Great Dao through the entirety of one’s mind and body.

The Analects also records:

"The Master said: 'To set one's heart on the Dao, to be attached to Virtue, to rely on Benevolence, and to take pleasure in the Arts ($\text{yì}$)'." (Analects, Shū Er)

"To take pleasure in the Arts" ($\text{yóu yú yì}$) —to find easy pleasure in the Six Arts (Rites, Music, Archery, Charioteering, Calligraphy, Mathematics). The character "pleasure/wander" ($\text{yóu}$) is significant—it implies ease and self-possession, not arduous effort, when engaging with the Arts. When cultivation reaches a high level, the actor no longer needs strenuous effort; action flows spontaneously within the domain of the "Art."

The dancer's state of "not seeing oneself, not hearing oneself" ($\text{mù bù zì jiàn, ěr bù zì wén}$) is the bodily realization of "wandering in the Arts" ($\text{yóu yú yì}$): the dancer no longer needs to "watch" their movements or "listen" to the music's rhythm, because the dance has become the object of their effortless "wandering"—smooth, natural, and unthinking.

This state corresponds to the process of learning described in Xunzi: Exhortation to Learning ($\text{Quàn Xué}$):

"Thus, without accumulating the measure of a foot, one cannot travel a thousand li; without accumulating small streams, one cannot form a great river and sea... If one cuts persistently, metal and stone can be carved."

"Without accumulating the measure of a foot, one cannot travel a thousand li" ($\text{bù jī kuǐ bù, wú yǐ zhì qiān lǐ}$)—any high state requires accumulation starting from the basics. The dancer’s state of "not seeing oneself, not hearing oneself" is not innate but achieved through the accumulation of "small steps," i.e., long-term, repetitive training. From initially focusing intently on one’s movements and listening carefully to the rhythm, one progresses to the spontaneous outflow of action—no longer seeing oneself, no longer hearing oneself. This involves countless repetitions of training.

"If one cuts persistently, metal and stone can be carved" ($\text{qiè ér bù shě, jīn shí kě lóu}$)—Through perseverance, even metal and stone can be carved. Is not the dancer’s body also a piece of "metal and stone"$1 Through persistent training, the chaotic, natural body is carved into a cultured, orderly body—this is the concrete process of "transforming nature and cultivating artifice" ($\text{huà xìng qǐ wěi}$).

Section 3: From Individual Dance to Group Harmony — The Social Philosophy of "Accumulating Intent" ($\text{jī yì}$)

"The multitude accumulates intent, profoundly harmonious!" ($\text{zhòng jī yì zhōng zhōng hū}$)!—The key to this sentence lies in the character "multitude" ($\text{zhòng}$). The significance of dance lies not only in the individual’s physical refinement but also in the collective coordination of the group.

Pre-Qin music and dance were never solitary activities but group endeavors. The Rites of Zhou, Office of Music: Grand Master, describes the scale of musical performances:

"When the King feasts formally, after the third offering of congratulations, the bells and drums are ordered to sound."

"Whenever the Six Melodies are performed, the first change summons the spirits of rivers and marshes; the second change summons the spirits of creeping things and forests... The sixth change involves the elephant images and the celestial spirits."

Grand musical performances required the coordination of numerous musicians and dancers. The "Yi Dance" ($\text{yì wǔ}$) in ancient times was organized in ranks of eight; the Son of Heaven used eight yi (sixty-four people), feudal lords six yi (thirty-six people), high officials four yi (sixteen people), and scholars two yi (four people). Dozens or hundreds of dancers moving simultaneously without "a single instance of contrariness" ($\text{mí yǒu bèi nì zhě}$)—this required immense training and unspoken understanding!

"Accumulating intent" ($\text{jī yì}$): The intent accumulated here is not just the individual's intent but the shared spiritual state of the entire group. After long periods of collective training, the dancers form an ineffable synchronization—no verbal communication or visual cues are necessary; their bodies coordinate naturally. This is "accumulating intent" ($\text{jī yì}$)—the collective consensus reached through long accumulation.

"Profoundly Harmonious!" ($\text{zhōng zhōng hū}$)—This term describes a state of harmony that is measured and secure, rather than intensely agitated. This shows that the highest state of group harmony is not tense, forced uniformity but tranquil, spontaneous coordination—the multitude is not forcibly unified but harmoniously aligned.

This description profoundly reflects Xunzi’s social ideal. The ideal society is not a rigidly controlled collective (like the Legalist ideal) but a naturally harmonious group—where every member, having internalized social norms through the cultivation of Rites and Music ($\text{huà xìng qǐ wěi}$), acts in spontaneous coordination with others, without external coercion. "The multitude accumulates intent, profoundly harmonious!" is the microcosm of this ideal society.

Xunzi: On Wealth ($\text{Fù Guó}$) states:

"All things share the same space but have different bodies; they have different uses that are suitable for human needs, this is the result of number ($\text{shù}$). Human relationships coexist, seeking the same goals but following different paths, desiring the same things but having different knowledge—this is due to birth ($\text{shēng}$). All have some acceptable aspect, yet what they accept differs; this is where the distinction between the wise and the foolish lies. ... Therefore, the former kings established Rites and Righteousness ($\text{lǐ yì}$) to differentiate them, establishing ranks of rich and poor, noble and base, such that they could mutually oversee one another—this is the foundation for nurturing the world."

"Human relationships coexist" ($\text{rén lún bìng chù}$)—people live together. "Seeking the same goals but following different paths" ($\text{tóng qiú ér yì dào}$); the former kings established Rites and Righteousness to "differentiate" ($\text{fēn}$) them—establishing the rank and role of each person. This "differentiation" ($\text{fēn}$) is "governance" ($\text{zhì}$)—turning chaos into order.

The "profound harmony" ($\text{zhōng zhōng hū}$) achieved in the dance is the ideal state realized after "human relationships coexist" and are differentiated by "Rites and Righteousness." Everyone has their position, their movements, their rhythm, yet they coordinate harmoniously, proceeding with ease and tranquility—this is not the product of coercion but the result of cultivation.

Section 4: Dance and the Dao of Heaven — The Ultimate Explanation of "Combining the Intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$)

Synthesizing all previous analyses, we can now offer a final interpretation of "combining the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{wǔ yì tiān dào jiān}$).

This five-character phrase can be understood on several levels:

First Level: The Body as Cosmic Simulation. The dancer simulates the operation of the Dao of Heaven through bodily movements: rising/falling (the verticality of Heaven and Earth), bending/stretching (the alternation of Yin and Yang), advancing/retreating (the passage of the four seasons), and slowing/hastening (the waxing and waning of the sun and moon). Dance is the miniature interpretation of the Dao of Heaven performed on the human body.

Second Level: The Group as Cosmic Miniature. The harmonious coordination of multiple dancers mirrors the harmonious coexistence of the myriad things in Heaven and Earth. The entire ensemble—with the drum reigning above, the bell bearing the foundation below, the chime stone flowing in the middle, the wind instruments shining like stars and the sun, the small instruments enriching the detail, and the dancers moving within—resembles the cosmos. Just as all things operate in the midst of Heaven and Earth, the dancers move within the framework of the music, realizing the Dao’s entirety.

Third Level: The Completion of Cultural Transformation. Dance is the highest form of Rites and Music education—it not only trains the body (the function of Rites) but also moves the heart (the function of Music); it not only regulates the individual but coordinates the group; it presents harmony not only in the auditory sense but fully in the visual and kinesthetic senses. Dance is the most complete realization of "transforming nature and cultivating artifice" ($\text{huà xìng qǐ wěi}$): the natural human body is completely transformed into a cultural body, and natural human desires are completely guided toward moral action.

Fourth Level: The Ultimate State of Unity between Heaven and Man. When the dancer "does not see themselves, does not hear themselves," when every movement is "clear and regulated," when "no one acts contrary," and when "the multitude accumulates intent, profoundly harmonious"—at this point, the human-made music and dance merge completely with the natural Dao. The person is no longer "performing" the Dao of Heaven but is a part of the Dao of Heaven’s manifestation—the ordered movement of the human body becomes a manifestation of the ordered operation of the Dao of Heaven.

This is the Confucian "Unity of Heaven and Man" ($\text{tiān rén hé yī}$)—not the Daoist merging of the individual with nature, but the group achieving a harmony identical to the Dao of Heaven through Rites and Music. This is the ultimate implication of "combining the intent of the Dao of Heaven" ($\text{yì tiān dào jiān}$).